Editör - Kırklareli Üniversitesi
Transkript
Editör - Kırklareli Üniversitesi
Editör Yrd. Doç. Dr. Muharrem ÖZTEL Arş. Gör. Hüseyin BURGAZOĞLU Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu Bildiri Kitabı I Kırklareli Üniversitesi Yayınları: 2 İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Yayınları: 1 Yayın Koordinatörü Yrd. Doç. Dr. Baki Çakır Editör Yrd. Doç. Dr. Muharrem Öztel Arş. Gör. Hüseyin Burgazoğlu Kapak Tasarımı Yrd. Doç . Dr. Mehmet Han Ergüven Abdurrahim Yüce İç Düzen Abdurrahim Yüce Baskı Sayısı 1. Basım Baskı Adedi 2000 ISBN ---------------------Baskı Tarihi Nisan 2011 Baskı Yeri Erkam Matbaası Organize Sanayi Bölgesi Turgut Özal Cad.No: 117/2 A-D İkitelli / İstanbul Yayıncı adresi: Kırklareli Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü Kültür Merkezi A Blok / KIRKLARELİ Tel: 0 288 212 96 70 (10 Hat) Fax: 0 288 212 96 79 Web: www.kirklareli.edu.tr © KIRKLARELİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ Bu kitabın bütün yayın hakları Kırklareli Üniversitesi´ne aittir. İÇİNDEKİLER Takdim ............................................................................................................................. VII Önsöz ................................................................................................................................ IX Açılış Programı / Openning Program ................................................................. 1 GİRİŞİMCİLİK ÖRNEKLERİ EXAMPLES OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP The Relationship between Government Investments and Firm Agglomerations at TR21 Sub-Region: Panel Causality Analysis Research Assistant Ibrahim AL, Associate Professor Mustafa Kemal DEGER, Research Assistant Murat Can GENC ............................................................................... Role of Entrepreneurship of Private Sector: An Overview to Sugar Industry Samet KAVOĞLU ............................................................................................................... Geleneksel Gıdalarda Pazarlama ve Girişimcilik: “Tekirdağ Peynir Helvası Örneği” Marketing and Entrepreneurship in Traditional Foods: ‘‘Tekirdag Cheese Halva as an Example’’ Öğr. Gör. Tuna ŞENER , Öğr. Gör. Cem KOLUKIRIK, H. Selçuk ETİ ................................ 29 39 47 GİRİŞİMCİLİK - KADIN GİRİŞİMCİLİĞİ ENTREPRENEURSHIP - WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP Sosyal Girişimcilik Social Entrepreneurship Yrd. Doç. Dr. Tülay GÜZEL ................................................................................................ Kadın Girişimciliği ve Kooperatifler Women Entrepreneurship and Cooperatives Yrd. Doç. Dr. Gülen ÖZDEMİR, Arş. Gör. Dr. Emine YILMAZ ......................................... 59 71 XI Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu Kadın Girişimcilerin Ekonomik Sürece Katılımları ve Örgütlenme Yaklaşımları Women Enterprises’ Participation to Economic Process and Organization Approaches Dr. Emine YILMAZ, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Gülen ÖZDEMİR, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yasemin ORAMAN, Dr. Sema KONYALI ............................................................................................................ 81 ALTERNATİF ENERJİ KAYNAKLARI ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES Enerji Verimliliği Kapsamında Yapılarda Doğal Aydınlatma Yöntemleri: Kırklareli Örneği Natural Illumination Methods as Part of Efficient Use of Energy: Kirklareli as an Example Öğr. Gör. Sertaç GÖRGÜLÜ, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Süreyya KOCABEY, Yrd. Doç. Dr. İzzet YÜKSEK, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Bahtiyar DURSUN ........................................ 97 Trakya Bölgesinin Biyogaz Potansiyeli ve Mevcut Potansiyelin Bölge Ekonomisine Katkısı Üzerine Bir İnceleme A Review for the Biogas and Contribution of Present Potential to the Economy of the Region Arş. Gör. Cem DOĞRU ....................................................................................................... 113 Organik Atıklardan Biyogaz Üretimi Production of Biogas from Organic Waste Prof. Dr. Aydın GÜREL, Arş. Gör. Zeynep ŞENEL ............................................................. 123 GİRİŞİMCİLİK - EĞİTİM İLİŞKİSİ ENTREPRENEURSHIP - EDUCATION Innovative Entrepreneurship in Selected Countries: The Case of Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania Öğr. Gör. Dr. A.Orçun SAKARYA ...................................................................................... 137 Farklı Eğitim Düzeyindeki Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Girişimcilik Konusunda Görüş Farklılığının Araştırılması Research on Diversity of Views of University Students in Different Levels of Education about Entrepreneurship Prof. Dr. Cengiz YILMAZ, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Tuncer ÖZDİL, Arş. Gör. Didem TEZSÜRÜCÜ, Öğr. Gör. Yasin KARADENİZ ................................................................................................. 157 Meslek Yüksekokulu Öğrencilerinin Girişimcilik Eğilimleri: Yalova Ve Kadir Has Üniversitelerinde Yapılan Karşılaştırmalı Bir Araştırma Inclination to Entrepreneurship of Vocational High School Students: A Comparative Research by Yalova and Kadir Has Universities Yrd. Doç. Dr. Orhan KOÇAK, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Ersin KAVİ ................................................... 175 KIRSAL KALKINMA RURAL DEVELOPMENT KÖYDES Project as a Instrument of Rural Development and Its Effect on the Infrastructure of Villages of Kırklareli Dr. Gökhan ZENGİN .......................................................................................................... 193 XII İçindekiler Şikago Kenti Örneğinde Ekonomik Coğrafyanın Yeniden Keşfi ve Trakya Bölgesi İçin Çıkartılabilecek Dersler Reassessment of Chicago Economic Geography and Lessons for Thrace Mehmet Lütfi ARSLAN ...................................................................................................... 211 Trakya Bölgesindeki Tarımsal Üreticilerin Ek Gelir Olanakları: Tarım Turizmi Additional Income Opportunities for the Agricultural Producers in Thrace: Agricultural Tourism Dr. Harun HURMA, Doç. Dr. Ahmet KUBAŞ, Öğr. Gör. Çağdaş İNAN............................ 219 TURİZM - MARKALAŞMA TOURISM - BRANDING Destinasyon Markalaşması: Vize’nin Turizm Destinasyonu Olarak Pazarlanması ve Markalaşması Destination Branding: Marketing and Branding of Vize as a Touristic Destination Yrd. Doç. Dr. Kamil MALKOÇLU, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Nihat Kamil ANIL, Öğr. Gör. Ebru BİLGEN 231 City-Branding and It’s Effect on the Local Development: Can Kırklareli Become A City Brand? Arş. Gör. İskender GÜMÜŞ, Arş. Gör. Gökhan ÖVENÇ .................................................. 247 Şehir Markası Yaratma Süreci ve Marka Şehir Çerçevesinde Kırklareli İlinin Değerlendirilmesi Contributions of City-branding to Socio-economic Development Yrd. Doç. Dr. Gülnur ETİ İÇLİ, Arş. Gör. Beste Burcu VURAL ................................................... 259 TURİZM VE BÖLGESEL KALKINMA TOURISM AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT Bölgesel Kalkınmada Turizmin Etkisi: Bozcaada-Gökçeada Arz Kesimi Üzerine Araştırma The Role of Tourism in Regional Development: A Research on Tourism Supply of Bozcaada and Gökçeada Öğr. Gör. Murat AKSU, Öğr. Gör. Bahadır SEZER, Öğr. Gör. Ali ÇAKIR .......................... 281 Çiftlik Turizminin Sosyoekonomik Kalkınmaya Etkileri: Trakya Bölgesi İçin Oluşturulabilecek Stratejiler Effects of Farm-based Tourism on Socio-Economic Development: Possible Strategies for Thrace Region Yrd. Doç. Dr. Kaplan UĞURLU .......................................................................................... 295 Bölgesel Kalkınma Farklılıklarının Giderilmesinde Turizm Sektörünün Rolü ve Önemi The Role and Importance of Tourism Industry about Removing Regional Development Differences Yrd. Doç. Dr. Nur ERSUN, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Kahraman ARSLAN .......................................... 317 XIII Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu YENİLENEBİLİR ENERJİ VE KALKINMA RENEWABLE ENERGY AND DEVELOPMENT Kırklareli İlinde Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynakları Kullanımının Bölgesel Kalkınmaya Olan Etkilerinin İncelenmesi A Research on Effects of Using Renewable Energy Resources on Regional Development in Kirklareli Yrd. Doç. Dr. Bahtiyar DURSUN, Öğr. Gör. Tarkan PERAN ............................................. 335 Kırsal Turizmde Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Kullanılması: Poyralı Köyü’nde Uygulanabilirliği Use of Renewable Energy Sources in Rural Tourism: Practicability in Village of Poyrali Öğr. Gör. Ali ÇAKIR, Öğr. Gör. Gülay ÇAKIR, Sibel DURSUN, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Bahtiyar DURSUN ........................................................................................ 347 1990-2010 Dönemi Organik Tarım Uygulamaları, Trakya Bölgesi’nin Görünümü ve Gelecek Perspektifi Organic Agricultural Applications Between 1990-2010, The Current Outlook of Thrace and its Future Perspective Yrd. Doç. Dr. Mustafa CANBAZ, Arş. Gör. Can Ahmet GENERAL, Arş. Gör. Ülfet İŞÇİ .. 357 Tarımsal Atıkların Değerlendirilmesinin, Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynakları Ve Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, Tekirdağ İli Uygulaması Evaluation of Using Agricultural Waste as Renewable Energy Resources and Sustainable Development: An Application in Tekirdag Prof. Dr. Necdet ÖZÇAKAR, Hasan BAKIN ...................................................................... 375 BÖLGESEL VERİMLİLİK REGIONAL PRODUCTIVENESS Kriz Ortamında Kırklareli İlinde Bulunan Firmaların Verimlilik Analizi Efficiency Analysis of Firms in Kirklareli in Economic Crisis Öğr. Gör. Fatma BUTUŞ, Öğr. Gör. Ayşe ANIL, Öğr. Gör. Tülay TOP ............................... 405 ISO 9001 Kalite Yönetim Sisteminin KOBİ’lerin Performanslarına Etkisi: Kırklareli İlinde Bir Uygulama Effects of ISO9001 Quality Management Systems on SMEs: An Application in Thrace Arş. Gör. Öznur AYDINER, Öğr. Gör. Yasin ÇAKIREL, Öğr. Gör. Ali GÖRENER ............. 413 Otel İşletmelerindeki İşgörenlerin İş Tatmini: Kocaeli ve Yalova Örneği Work Satisfaction of Employees in Hotels: Kocaeli and Yalova as examples Prof. Dr. Derman KÜÇÜKALTAN, Arş. Gör. Duygu TALİH, Öğr. Gör. Şeniz ÖZHAN ........ 433 EMEK - İSTİHDAM İLİŞKİSİ LABOR - EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP Sosyal İçerme Açısından Eski Hükümlülerin Girişimciliğe Yönlendirilmesi ve Denetimli Serbestlik Faaliyetleri Orientation of Old Prisoners to Entrepreneurship in the Perspective of Social Inclusion and Applications of Supervised Liberty Yrd. Doç. Dr. Ersin KAVİ, Öğr. Serdar Altun ........................................................................... 449 XIV İçindekiler Labor Market in Health Sector in Republic of Bulgaria, Ass. Prof. N. Atanasov, PhD, Ass. R. Stoianova ................................................................. 463 Edirne Sanayi Sitesinde Çalışan İş Görenlerin Mobbinge Uğrama Düzeylerinin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Yapılan Bir Araştırma A Research Conducted to Determine Level of Mobbing on Employees in Edirne Industrial Estate Doç. Dr. Agah Sinan ÜNSAR .............................................................................................. 473 FİNANSAL GELİŞMELER VE TİCARET FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND TRADING Trakya Bölgesinin Kalkınmasında Bölgesel Planlama Yaklaşımı İhtiyacı ve Planlama Modeli Önerisi The Need for a Regional Planning Perspective on Development of Thrace and Planning Model Suggestion Yrd. Doç. Dr. Nur ERSUN, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Kahraman ARSLAN ............................................... 487 Türkiye’de Kalkınma Ajansları: Trakya Kalkınma Ajansı Örneği Turkish Development Agencies: Thracian Development Agency as an Example; Thracian Development Agency Yrd. Doç. Dr. Nihat Kamil ANIL, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Kamil MALKOÇLU, Öğr. Gör. Ömer Sinan PEHLİVAN ....................................................................................... 507 BÖLGESEL KALKINMANIN TARİHSEL BOYUTU HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT Osmanlı Döneminde Balkan Kökenli İşgücünün ve İşletmecilerin Ereğli Madenlerinin Gelişmesine Katkıları The Contributions of Balkan Labor Force and Businessmen to the Development of Eregli Mineral Resources in Ottoman Empire Yrd. Doç. Dr. Hamdi GENÇ ............................................................................................... 525 Customs Registers In The Second Half Of The Nineteenth Century On Ottoman Danubian Ports: Rules Of The Game In Ottoman Trade Arş. Gör. Gökçen COŞKUN ALBAYRAK .......................................................................... 535 TARIMSAL VERİMLİLİK AGRICULTURAL EFFICIENCY Effects of Dietary VITASIL® on the Growth Performance of Carp (Cyprinus caprio) Cultivated in a Recirculation System Assist. Prof. Alexander ATANASOV, Assist. Prof. Zhivko ZHELEV, Assoc. Prof. Veselin IVANOV, Galin NIKOLOV ................................................................ 551 Protein Levels in the Feed of Carp (Cyprinus caprio) on Cultivated in Recirculation System Prof. Yordan STAYKOV, Assist. Prof. Zhivko ZHELEV, Assoc. Prof. Veselin VIDEV, Assist. Prof. Alexander ATANASOV ............................................................................... 555 Tarım Havzaları Üretim ve Destekleme Modelinin Bölgesel Kalkınma Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Regional Development-based Evaluation of Production and Support Model for Agricultural Production Areas Yrd. Doç. Dr. Gökhan UNAKITAN, Dr. Harun HURMA, Dr. Celal DEMİRKOL .............. 559 XV Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu KIRSAL KALKINMA VE REKABET RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND COMPETITION Contribution of Thrace Region to Competitive Sectors of Turkey Assist. Prof. Adem BALTACI, Res. Assist. Huseyin BURGAZOGLU, Res. Assist. Selver KILIC ................................................................................................... 573 Kendi İşini Kurma ve Girişimcilik Ruhu Ticaret Meslek Liselerinde Girişimcilik Ruhu Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması Setting One’s Own Business and Spirit of Entrepreneurship Yrd. Doç. Dr. Selami ÖZCAN, Yrd. Doç. Dr. H. Yunus TAŞ ............................................. 585 Kırsal Kalkınma Açısından İletişim ve Girişimcilik İlişkisi Communication-Entrepreneurship Relationship in terms of Rural Development Arş. Gör. Zeynep ŞENEL, Prof. Dr. Aydın GÜREL ............................................................. 599 BÖLGESEL KALKINMA VE FİNANS REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCE Türkiye’de Finans Piyasasının Gelişim Seyrinde Katılım Bankacılığının Yeri The Role of Participation Banking in the Development of Turkish Financial Market Yrd. Doç. Dr. Ferhat SAYIM, Arş. Gör. Özlem ÖZMEN ..................................................... 611 2008 Küresel Finansal Krizinin Türkiye ve Trakya Bölgesi Üzerine Etkileri: Mukayeseli Bir Analiz The Impacts Of Global Financial Crisis On Turkey and Thrace: A Comparative Analysis Yrd. Doç. Dr. Ayfer GEDİKLİ .............................................................................................. 635 Trakya Bölgesi’nde Tarım Sektörünün Finansmanında Kullanılan Banka Kredilerinin Gelişimi: 2000–2010 Dönemi Karşılaştırmalı Bir Analiz Development Process of the Bank Loans for the Agricultural Sector in Thrace: A Comparative Analysis Covering 2000-2010 Yrd. Doç. Dr. Mustafa CANBAZ, Arş. Gör. Mevlüt CAMGÖZ ......................................... 665 BİLGİ - İLETİŞİM VE DIŞ TİCARETİN GELİŞİMİ INFORMATION - COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN TRADE Şehirlerin Markalaşması ve Şehir Markası Oluşturmada Sembol Yapılar: Çanakkale Örneği City-branding and The Role of Symbolic Structures in City-branding Process: Canakkale as an Example; (The Dardanelles) Doç. Dr. Mehmet MARANGOZ, Prof. Dr. Günal ÖNCE, Arş. Gör. Hale ÇELİKKAN ....... 681 In the Thrace Region Use of Information and Communications Equation, in the “Integrated Management Information Systems” for the Information Production Process Development and Entrepreneurship Dr. Filiz GÜLTEKİN KÖSE ................................................................................................. 701 XVI İçindekiler EĞİTİM, BÜTÇE VE PLANLAMA EDUCATION, BUDGET AND PLANNING E-commerce Security Instructor Serdar CANBAZ ............................................................................................... 715 Implementation of ICT in education – case study in Trakia University Associate Prof. Lina YORDANOVA, Chief Assist. Prof. Gabriela KIRYAKOVA, Senior Assist. Prof. Nadezhda ANGELOVA ...................................................................... 735 Merkezi Yönetim Bütçesi İle İlişkileri Açısından Trakya Bölgesinin İncelenmesi An Analysis On Thrace Based On Its Relations With Central Administration Budget Prof. Dr. Naci B. MUTER, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Selçuk İPEK ................................................................ 757 Bölgesel Kalkınma ve Girişimci Üniversite İlişkisi: Anadolu Üniversitesi Örneği Relationship between Regional Development and Entrepreneur University: Anatolia University as an Example Öğr. Gör. Sevgi SEZER ......................................................................................................... 771 KIRSAL KALKINMA VE TARIM RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND AGRICULTURE Cumhuriyetin İlk Yıllarında (1923–1930) Kırklareli’nde TarımHayvancılık, Ticaret ve Sanayinin Gelişimi Development of Agriculture, Stockbreeding, Trade and Industry in Kirklareli in the first years of Republic (1923-1930) Yrd. Doç. Dr. V. Türkan DOĞRUÖZ ............................................................................................. 795 Üretici Örgütlerinin Kırsal Kalkınma Yönünden Değerlendirilmesi: Kayalıköy ve Kırklareli Barajları Sulama Kooperatifleri Örneği Development-based Evaluation of Agricultural Production Organizations: Example; Irrigation Associations for Kayalıköy and Kirklareli Dams Dr. Erol ÖZKAN, Dr. Harun HURMA, Uzm. Başak AYDIN, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Erkan AKTAŞ, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Gülen ÖZDEMİR, Doç. Dr. Ömer AZABAĞAOĞLU .................................... 811 Biyolojik Çeşitliliğin Korunmasının Önemi ve Hayvancılık Sektöründe Sunduğu Ekonomik Fırsatlar Importance of Protecting Biological Diversity and Its Economic Opportunities for the Stockbreeding Sector Hasan BAKIN, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Eser Kemal GÜRCAN ........................................................... 825 DOĞA VE SOSYOEKONOMİK DEĞERLER NATURE AND SOCIOECONOMIC VALUES Korunan Alanların Sosyo-Ekonomik Değeri Ve Yöre Halkının Yararlanma Olanakları: İğneada Longoz Ormanları Milli Parkı Örneği Socio-economic Value of Protected Areas and Opportunities for Local Population to Benefit From These Areas: Example; Longoz Forest in Igneada Dr. Harun HURMA, Yrd. Doç. Dr. Murat ÖZYAVUZ, Dr. Murat CANKURT ................... 847 XVII Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmada Biyosfer Rezervlerinin Önemi: İğneada Longoz Ormanları Örneği Importance of Biosphere Reservoirs on Sustainable Development: Example of Igneada Longoz Forest Yrd. Doç. Dr. Murat ÖZYAVUZ .............................................................................................. 859 Yıldız Dağları Kırsal Mimari Mirasının Turizm Amaçlı Kullanımı Use of Yıldız Mountain Rural Architecture as a Touristic Area Yrd. Doç. Dr. İzzet YÜKSEK ............................................................................................... 875 TARİHSEL SÜREÇTE SOSYOEKONOMİK YAPI HISTORICAL PROCESS OF SOCIOECONOMIC STRUCTURE 20.yy Başlarında Rumeli Vilayetleri’nin Mali Gücü (1325–1329/1909–1912) Financial Capabilities of Rumelian Provinces in Early 20th century (1325 - 1329 / 1909 – 1912) Yrd. Doç. Dr. Muharrem ÖZTEL ........................................................................................ 885 Kapanış Oturumu / Closing Session ............................................................. 901 İndeks ................................................................................................................... 927 Sempozyumdan Görüntüler ............................................................................. 931 XVIII GİRİŞİMCİLİK - EĞİTİM İLİŞKİSİ ENTREPRENEURSHIP - EDUCATION Innovative Entrepreneurship in Selected Countries: The Case of Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania Öğr. Gör. Dr. A. Orçun SAKARYA1 Abstract Following the Lisbon Decisions, innovation became as an important priorities for increasing the competitiveness throughout the European Union. In this context, innovation performances of the member states as well as some of the candidate ones are evaluated on yearly basis. The common tool used for monitoring innovation performance is Summary Innovation Index of European Innovation Scoreboard. Summary Innovation Index assesses innovation under four sections: human resources, firm activities, economic effects and innovators among which entrepreneurship is one of the important indicators. At the firm level, innovation is important notably in value creation stage not only for new start-ups but also existing firms. Commercialization of new ideas, search for the new domains and markets require an innovation approach to business making which underlines the relation between innovation and entrepreneurship. Accordingly, this relationship has been increasingly considered in order to foster sector-based competitiveness and also became an important policy issue in the related countries’ macroeconomic agenda. The aim of this descriptive study is to compare innovative entrepreneurship policies of Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey. Following the introduction, first part of the study involves investigation of the linkage between innovation and 1. Çankaya Üniversitesi, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi 137 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu entrepreneurship. Then, based on the recent data, an outlook of innovation performances of three countries has been examined. Third part of the study involves the assessment of similarities and differences of innovative entrepreneurship profiles of the related countries as well as the effects of applied policies. At the discussion part, it has been deduced that innovation enablers in all countries look similar; however, there are significant differences in product and process innovation activities. Possible policy alternatives for improving the innovation supported entrepreneurship initiatives and further research areas have also been mentioned in the conclusion part. 1. Introduction: Dimensions of innovation Concern with both emerging sources of global competition and the necessity of continuous improvement focused firms’ attention on the available strategies to respond to these challenges where innovation is one of the important ones. Innovation basically includes; technological change of new products, new services, new operations, processes, new information technologies as well as new implementations in management. Here, the commercialization of the products and services and the added value determines the innovation performance. Innovation is not only important for firms; it also influences countries’ economic policies. As an important agenda item it also involves multiple dimensions. One of them is about the coordination between industrial and the countries’ wealth policies; therefore it includes many indicators including economic and social indicators as gross domestic product, productivity growth and so on. In such an environment, especially the sustainability of innovation requires the presence of a proper institutional infrastructure both in public and the private sector sides in order to leverage innovation inputs2. To attain the derivative effects of innovation, the related actors’3 cooperation is also vital especially for dissemination effects. The actors’ role can be observed in a systematic concept which can also be defined as the national innovation system (NIS); an institutional network which leads imports or implement new technologies. Alternatively, NIS can be the relations that are used for production and diffusion of new useful economic information or “institutions cluster” which may define innovative performances of the related firms. Lastly, NIS can also be defined as a dynamic system that defines information, regulation and finance flow between the institutions or firms. Typical indicators to assess the structure of the NIS are research and development (R&D) efforts, the quality of educational systems, collaborations between universities and industry, and the availability of venture capital (Negro and Hekkert, 2008)4 2. According to EIS the innovation inputs (enablers) adds up to 29 under the headings of “human resources” “firm activities” and the outputs “economic effects” and “innovators” 3. The actors are the ones in the National Innovation System (NIS), see Sharif, N. and Chan, I. (2004) “Conceptualizing Innovation Management and Culture in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR): An Exploratory Study of Organization-Specific Critical Success Factors” Innovation,Entrepreneurship and culture: The Interacton Between Technology, Progress and Economic Growth, Edward Elgar Publishing, Massachusetts, 255 p. for the linkages between the related actors. 4. See Engelbrecht. H.J. and Darrogh, J. (1999). A Comparative macro-level assessment of New Zealand’s ‘ national innovation system. Prometheus 17: 283 for alternative aspects of NIS 138 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education The second dimension is the importance of innovation for the firms. Similar to regional development, innovation dynamics are primarily used for increasing a firm’s competitiveness. For example, firms may use the advantages of radical and incremental innovations5 while stressing on the increase in the intellectual capital6 pool providing a basis for a better innovative environment, facilitating market research and leading to the generation of new ideas at a firm level. Other firm-basis possible consequences include increase in research and development (R&D) activities, collective bargaining power with authorities in relation with the needs of the firm, supply chain improvement as a result of effective networking activities, development of foreign trade opportunities and technology support which may result in productivity increase in the firm level. Some of these dynamics have a direct impact on the firm’s competitive advantage. In this context, new regional policies have been developed where much attention is focused on innovation and networks of cooperation between companies as strong elements that must integrate actions undertaken by the regional administration and supported by all the existing institutions in the region (Diez, 2001). When the geographical proximity issues are considered, innovation can also be focused in a regional dimension; going along with the “regional innovation policies” which are generally economic, such as welfare creation in a certain zone and its sustainable development. These policies generally interact with national R&D and science policies and overlap with industrial, labor and social policies. Some of the examples of regional innovation initiatives can be stated as the ones in which tacit and explicit information is shared throughout platforms, clustering activities, all becoming an integral part of regional development activities7. Entrepreneurship being one of the input indicators and acting as the motivator of innovative implications in all areas of the industry; keeps its relative important place in the innovation-based economic policies. The input/output dimensions we already mentioned provide the mainstream of our theoretical approach. In our study, some of the inputs and outputs will be analyzed in detail for three countries in a comparative point of view where entrepreneurship indicator is specifically used as a benchmark. Accordingly, the goal of this descriptive study is to compare Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania regarding their innovation-based entrepreneurship and to reach some conclusions concerning their competitiveness. The link between 5. Incremental innovation leads to small improvements to existing products and business processes. It can be thought of as an exercise in problem-solving where the goal is clear but how to get there needs to be solved. At the opposite end, radical innovation results in new products or services delivered in entirely new ways (Davila, T, Epstein, M.J. and Shelton, R.D. (2006) “Making Innovation Work: How to Manage It, Measure It and Profit from It”, Wharton School Publishing Upper Saddle River, N.J., 334 p). 6. Keeping its relatively important place in the literature of knowledge economics (Amidon, D.M. (2003). “The Innovation Superhighway” Butterworth-Heinemann, Amsterdam, 379p.) intellectual capital, (or intangible assets), are operating as “business brains” in organizations and convert the tacit and explicit knowledge into added value in basic terms. 7. It is also possible to mention the systematization of innovation at the regional level. Regional Innovation Systems which comprises five core elements: (1) the internal organization of firms, (2) the inter-firm relationship, (3) the role of the public sector, (4) the institutional set-up of the financial sector, (5) Research and Development (R&D) intensity and R&D organizations’ infrastructure (Zhu, D. and Tann, J. (2005) “A regional innovation system in a small-sized Region: A clustering model in Zhongguancun Science Park”, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 17(3),pp.375). 139 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu innovation, entrepreneurship and competitiveness is overviewed in the second part; whereas the innovation and innovation-based entrepreneurship performances of the related countries are analyzed in the third and fourth parts respectively. Last part of the study includes the conclusion and brief political recommendations. 2. Going back to roots: The link between innovation, entrepreneurship and competitiveness Why should entrepreneurs also be good innovators? Search for the answer takes us back to the classical definitions of both entrepreneurship and innovation. We already mentioned that the innovation should include an added value8 and possible creation of a commercial product. Commercialization of products also involves decision making by the creator, or the manager, which might affect the product success in the related market. Here, the innovative strategic decision9 made by the entrepreneur is shaped by the knowledge infrastructure and vocational abilities. Such strategic decisions also identify the process of (e.g. new technology adoption10, the degree of manufacturer and user innovations11 and so on) which is required for product or service innovations as well as the diffusion of the innovative ideas. During the process, an entrepreneur is the person who searches value creation, pursues others who create new value and comes up with new ideas to generate opportunities for maximizing the benefits12 on the road to innovation. We should also note that some of the innovations require risk-taking behavior, which is also one of the characteristics of an entrepreneur. While entrepreneurs also compete with each other, entrepreneurship is distinct as a factor of production in that other people‘s innovations can pave the way for one‘s own innovations by creating further opportunities for new ventures (Henrekson and Sanandaji, 2010). On the other side; innovative companies have an entrepreneurial culture13 8. Innovation might increase the tangible benefits of the product or service that appeal to the recipients’ senses, in the form of better value; perhaps a product with a larger range of functions, better durability, or better design, is easier to use or is lower priced than the competition for a similar specification. The intangible benefits take the form of a better designed or functioning product or service, efficient customer service, a better experience, and a feeling of greater satisfaction or enjoyment from the purchasing and usage process (Lowe, R and Mariott, S. (2006) “Enterprise: Entrepreneurship and Innovation:Concepts, Context and Commercialization” Elsevier, Burlington, 444p.). 9. Entrepreneurial aspiration reflects the qualitative nature of entrepreneurial activity (Bosma, N., Acs, J.A., Autio, E., Coduras, A. and J.Levie (2008). “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor” Executive Report, 2008, 66p.) 10. The classical sequence of research, discovery, patenting and approval, production, marketing and adoption of new technologies. 11. An innovation is a user innovation when the developer expects to benefit by using it; an innovation is a manufacturer innovation when the developer expects to benefit by selling it. 12. With a Schumpeterian point of view, as entrepreneurs innovate rather than invent, they are “first movers”, a position rendering them temporary monopoly power with associated huge monopoly profits. In turn, the profits entrepreneurs make attract imitators. Moreover, Te Velde, R. (2004) “Schumpeter’s Theory of Economic Development Revisited” Innovation, Entrepreneurship and culture: The Interacton Between Technology, Progress and Economic Growth Edward Elgar Publishing, Massachusetts, 255 p.clarifies the role of entrepreneur in his study. 13. See Ulijn, J and Brown, T.E. (2004) “Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Culture, A Matter of Interaction Between Technology, Progress and Economic Growth? An introduction” Innovation, Entrepreneurship and culture: The Interaction Between Technology, Progress and Economic Growth, Edward Elgar Publishing, Massachusetts, 255 p. for a detailed explanation of the link between entrepreneurship and corporate culture. 140 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education driven by inspirational leaders, skilled management, and informed and engaged employees. As a result, entrepreneurs need to search purposefully for the sources of innovation, the changes and their symptoms that indicate opportunities for successful innovation (Drucker, 1984). Moving towards the country scope, the relation between innovation and entrepreneurship becomes more visible in the area of competitiveness. Highpotential entrepreneurship is consistently linked to national competitiveness measures (competitiveness, government efficiency, technology index, information and communication technologies (ICT)); it is also strongly linked with a strong science, education and technology base (participation in secondary and tertiary education, scientific publications per capita (adopted from DTI, 2003). These links is strengthened by the dissemination and efficient exploitation of the generic technologies by the entrepreneur’s efforts. It is possible to mention countries in which entrepreneurship is the key driver for the innovation in economic terms where, the entrepreneurs are assumed to drive the innovation in a country and initiate structural changes in the sectors. In this framework, some of the main issues towards competitiveness is the creation of the new and innovative jobs for employment and implementation of the new technologies. The productivity contribution to the country economy is another advantage which is especially retrieved from small incumbents, where, the number and intensity of the small-scale entrepreneurs might have a significant contribution towards the competitiveness. Some of the components for competitiveness can also be assumed as the innovation inputs of a country, hence, a mutual relationship between entrepreneurship and innovation can be imagined at this stage. The most important inputs that is related to innovative environment is the ones that basically concerns government support for entrepreneurship (such as firm and market structure, education, finance, related R&D activities as well as the legal framework). Moreover, other inputs such as technology readiness, macroeconomic stability and financial market sophistication are also among the significant ones that might affect the entrepreneurship based innovation. In most of the entrepreneurial activities intellectual capital plays a vital role. Human capital development can be considered as an initiator of the entrepreneurial environment which has to be supported by the broad access to skills and competencies and it especially evolve with the capability to learn. In this stage, the broadband formal education, life-long learning, labor skill improvement are also important elements. Regarding the industry, Government’s main role is to improve institutional frameworks (e.g. incubators, management of public research organizations) and incentive structures (e.g. regulations governing researchers’ mobility and entrepreneurship) (OECD, 2004). Hence, assessment of the relation between innovation and entrepreneurship can also provide insights for benchmarking countries’ innovative performances, which we deal in the next sections. 141 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu 3. Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania: The innovative performances Country innovation assessment requires certain methodologies to be followed. European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS) of the European Union (EU) is one of the most popular ones. As a result of the Lisbon Strategy which aimed to develop a European area for innovation, research and development; European TrendChart on Innovation gives a general idea in the framework of innovative performance evaluation for the countries. One the of the main indicators that has been used in the TrendChart is EIS which collects and analyses trends in key indicators across the EU27, candidate countries and the US and Japan. In this framework, Summary Innovation Index (SII) which gives an “at a glance” overview of aggregate national innovation performance. In SII scale highest value is 1 whereas lowest value is 0. In EIS, countries are divided into 4 groups; 1-Innovation leaders are the ones with national overall innovation scores are above the EU mean. 2-Innovation followers are the ones with national overall score below the innovation leaders but equal or above of the EU 27, 3-Moderate innovators are the countries, whose scores are below the EU 27, 4-Cathcing –up countries with national innovation scores are well below the EU 27 but increasing over time. In the next two sections, EIS in fact has been considered as a methodology in three country’s innovation assessment as well as the entrepreneurship. The respective countries are Romania and Bulgaria, two of the newest members of EU and Turkey one of the candidate countries. 3.1. Innovation in Bulgaria To begin with, it can be observed that EU accession has contributed on the innovation activities in Bulgaria. Although Bulgaria is one of the catching-up countries, the increase in the innovation performance is satisfactory. Possible reasons for such an improvement can be cited as the clear understanding of the innovation policies by the government and the establishment of the facilitating institutions such as the technology transfer centers, National Science Fund and National Innovation Fund, latter as the financing institution. In fact, the main objectives of the national innovation policy are formulated in the National Innovation Strategy (NIST), adopted in 2004. This is the most important document that is crucial for the development of the innovation system and growth in the innovation potential of the Bulgarian economy. The other document underlining the goals for the innovation policy is the National Reform Programme (2008-2010) (EC, 2009(1)). The detailed formulation of goals, activities, timeline and resources for their implementation presented in the NIST are the background for the development of the innovation capacity in the country. 142 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education (Adopted from EC, 2009(1)) Moreover, a number of Framework Programme 7 (FP7) projects in progress in the area of innovation, innovation oriented business culture and contributing to policy making efforts. Regarding the innovation governance system, the policymaking is basically handled by the ministries whereas the implementation by the state agencies. In this framework, Bulgarian Small and Medium Enterprises Promotion Agency (BSMEPA), the Ministry of Education and Science (MES) The Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism (MEET) are the contributing institutions. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Science (MEYS), National Council for Science and Research, The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy are also acting as additional main innovation policy-related government bodies on the policy formulation side. Also the establishment of a National Innovation Council is also aimed in recent policy formulations. We can assess the innovation in Bulgaria in the basis of strengths and weaknesses. One of the strengths is the increasing number of R&D staff, mostly condensed in the public sector. Besides, the promising role of the ICT is another potential for innovative implications in the country. Such implications are reflected in the market side by the organizational innovations in the first place, marketing innovations in the second and lastly product and process ones respectively. New product and process innovations are generally implemented simultaneously. Among the companies dealing with innovation; half of them increased their sales with as a result of the related innovaton efforts. Basically, around three quarter of the process innovation is related to the ICT capacity in the field in the EU, whereas this situation is quite similar for Bulgaria. On the education side, the strongest point is the increase in the Science Citation Index publications as a recent trend. At the same token, the participation of the universities to FP7 programs is also expanding. Regarding the weaknesses, R&D funding and recruitment of qualified staff can be observed as the first problem. Especially, in the area of recruitment; sectoral distribution of R&D staff had a decreasing trend in recent years. One of the basic reasons can be imagined as that the education is not focused as the prior issue notably for innovation, rather, sector integrated innovations is mostly preferred in the country. Moreover, innovation funding which has been negatively affected by the recent economic crises also caused a decline in the R&D activities and patent activities are also weakened. Recent economic crises in question also slowed down the economic and educational reforms in the country. Another weakness can be seen as lack of innovation awareness jeopardizing the dissemination of innovation throughout the country. Although the NIS system as well as the related actors is properly established, the coordination between the public and private sectors seems to have more refinement. As a result, innovation policies needed to be renewed in the country. To solve the problems stated above some new policies as well as activities are anticipated in addition to current NIS which is the backbone for innovation activities. They can be counted as follows; 143 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu 1-Establishment of technology transfer centers, 2-Establishment of entrepreneurship centers in universities, 3-Supporting existing clusters, developing new financial support schemes for innovation (Bulgarian Development Bank, business angels etc) and the operational program: competitiveness in which the innovation is the mainstream. 3.2. Innovation in Romania Similar to Bulgaria, Romania is also one of the catching-up countries in which innovation lives its developing stages. Although innovation level is lower in comparison to other EU countries, the increase ratio is the one of the highest. Regarding the governance system, there are basically two administrative bodies in the design and implementation of the innovation policies in the country, the National Authority for Scientific Research (NASR) and Ministry of Education and Research and innovation (MERI). While NASR remains as the key player in the design and implementation of innovation policies, it now collaborates with a wider range of government agencies that took up responsibilities directly or indirectly related to innovation management (EC, 2009 (2)). On the other hand, in developing its policies, MERI is advised by a number of bodies, one of which is the Advisory Board for R&D and Innovation, comprised of representatives from the science, technology and industrial communities; which can be imagined as important assets for the innovativeness. Moreover, in order to foster the innovation process in the country, more than 600 research organizations (half of which are public owned) are active. Their basic goal is to foster R&D technical services. Such research organizations provide an efficient infrastructure for the implementation of innovative activities. One of the strengths for innovative implications in question is the EU membership. In political terms, improvements in the competitiveness and capacity of the R&D via upgrading of scientific and technical competence, including equipment and facilities; a focus on key centers of scientific and technological excellence; collaborative R&D projects involving research institutes, universities and firms; and the development of clusters and networks of key innovation system actors are aimed in project basis. Related funding is undertaken in competitive basis. An additional strength is the increasing trend in the technology intensive industries such as ICT. It can be noted that there are more innovative companies in industry than in the service sector. It has been observed that the large scale companies are more innovative than the small and medium ones. In here, total spending for innovation, the spending on machines, equipment and software has the biggest weight an out of all number of innovative companies and approximately 19% declared the innovation has been achieved through co-operation. The main effects on innovation are the improvement in quality of goods and services and the increase in manufacturing capacity (Dragan, 2009). Lastly, the internationalization of the Romanian firms are legally promoted, which is also another potential factor for fostering firm-based innovations especially at the technology transfer level, meaning that the R&D at the firm side is considered as an important issue. 144 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education Need for improvement for R&D activities, especially at the firm side can be observed as the first weakness, despite the presence of the strong infrastructure. Similar issue can also be observed in the academia in together with the quantity of R&D staff which showed a decreasing trend in recent years. Funding problems and brain drain appear as two important reasons of these problems. Similar to Bulgaria, recent economic crises had different negative effects on the industrial and firm-based innovative processes. In a wider context, the dissemination of innovation culture can be considered as problematic both in industry and academia. Moreover, it has also been observed that the enterprise innovation level has not been consistently supported by an operational technology transfer system despite the R&D centers opened up by the firms in the country. Regarding the general performance of the country over the past five years, finance and support and throughputs have been the main drivers of the improvement in innovation performance, in particular as a result from strong growth in Public R&D expenditures (18.0%), Private credit (17.4%), Broadband access by firms (24.3%), Community trademarks (36.0%) and Community designs (44.3%). Performance in firm investments and Innovators has increased at a lower pace (EC, 2009 (2)) The main objectives for innovation policy in Romania are defined in one of the most important innovation policy documents, the 2007-13 National Strategy for Research, Development and Innovation which has two key dimensions: (i) an internal, national dimension, which aims to strengthen the national research, development and innovation (RDI) performance, economic competitiveness and social well being; and (ii) a European and international dimension, which aims to ensure the convergence of national RDI policies to EU RDI orientations and priorities in view of a smooth integration of the country into the European Research Area (ERA) and reduce the gap in relation to other EU Member States (EC, 2009(2)) 3.3. Innovation in Turkey Turkey is one of the catching up countries and its increase ratio is above the EU countries in terms of innovation. Supreme Council of Science and Technology (BTYK) acts as the highest authority in the NIS. Its primary duties are supporting the government during the identification of long-term science and technology policies, setting R&D goals in science and technology areas, mobilizing public institutions within R&D plans/programs. Second institution is The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) which is the main implementer of the policies designed by BTYK. The mission of TUBITAK is to develop scientific and technological policies in line with national priorities and in cooperation with all sectors and related establishments. Moreover, a number of ministries are also active in the process. Regarding the strengths, Turkey has a well established national innovation infrastructure and input variables are not badly affected from the recent economic crises except the ones that are related to funding of innovation, having a negative 145 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu effect on firms’ (most of them being as SMEs in general) competitiveness. Human resources at the academia side are another potential for the innovative activities, which yielded a dramatic increase in the scientific outputs especially in the last five years. Investments in knowledge (education, R&D, innovation training) and innovation infrastructures (broadband penetration) is another strength, and the R&D expenses at both and public sides look promising. As a result, the ratio of high technology exports increased as well as the number of innovative companies. Although Turkey is not an EU member, candidateship integration projects’ effect is also significant on developing innovation activities throughout the sectors. Lastly, increasing ratio of the private funding for innovation can be considered as another asset. One of the most significant weaknesses is the commercialization of innovation due to the lack of qualified human resources in the business side. The deficiencies in the firm investments in innovation in general terms are among the other problems weakening the commercialization process. Consequently, although increased in the last years, patent activities are still far below the EU level14. This situation is also another reflection of the lack of innovation awareness in the country, where, the culture promoting the intellectual property rights needs to be improved. Another weakness is the early stage capital, that is, the lack of venture capital mechanisms, as well as demand, reflecting the second negative effect of the deficiencies in innovation culture. In the area of commercialization again; empowerment of cooperation between universities and industry may yield positive results, despite increasing demand for similar independent collaboration projects. Last problem is about the innovation governance system where the coordination and cooperation among the institutions has still more to achieve. The goals and objectives of innovation policy in Turkey are covered in the following main official documents: The Ninth Development Plan (2007-13), the Medium-Term Programme (2008-10) issued by the State Planning Organization (DPT), the Implementation Plan for the National Science and Technology Strategy (2005-10) and the National Innovation Strategy (2008-10) prepared by TUBITAK and approved by the BTYK (EC, 2009 (3)). Some of the guidelines are; increasing the gross domestic expenditure of R&D as a percentage of GDP 15as well as GERD per capita, increasing number of researchers as well as the number of SMEs innovating in house and their mutual cooperation. Regarding the ones that concern the output variables, increasing the number of patents and scientific outputs as a whole in conjunction to high-tech products can be noted. 2008-2010 National Innovation Strategy is especially important as it provides a reference for Turkey’s short-term innovation strategies and principally includes tips for increasing innovation-based competitiveness of the country by stressing on focal innovation strategies such as; promotion of entrepreneurship, innovation and productivity, encouragement 14. Between years 1995 and 2009 domestic applications constituted about 23,5% of total (domestic+foreign) applications in the country (TPI. (2010) Yearly Patent Statistics, Turkish Patent Institute. Obtained through Internet, http://www.tpe.gov.tr/portal/default_en.jsp?sayfa=124). 15. The ratio is 0,78 as of 2008 (TUBITAK, 2010. R&D statistics, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Obtained through Internet, http://www.tubitak.gov.tr/tubitak_content_files/ BTYPD/istatistikler/BTY01.pdf) 146 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education and creation of sustainable, strong and competitive markets throughout the country, establishment of infrastructures convenient for innovation in all fields, development of international cooperation, development of the innovation system’s governance and coordination across stakeholders. 3.4. Entrepreneurship In Three Countries In this section we only concentrate in one of the input variables, the entrepreneurship for the latest year available, 2006. Table 1 provides a brief overview of the entrepreneurship performances in three countries. Table 1. Entrepreneurship performance for selected countries in 2006 (Adopted from EC, 2009(1);(2);(3)) Linkages & entrepreneurship SMEs innovating in-house Innovative SMEs collaborating with others Public-private co-publications (2-year avg.) Turkey Growth Bulgaria Growth Romania Growth 28.2% 0.0% 15.1% 0.0% 17.9% 2.6% 5.3% 0.0% 3.8% 5.0% 2.9% 0.6% 0.3% 1.2% 0.5% 19.4% 3.1% 6.4% It can be observed from Table 1 that the ratio of the SMEs innovating in-house is the highest in Turkey followed with a ratio of 28,2% followed by Romania (17,9%) and Bulgaria (15,1%). Same theory holds in the area of innovative SMEs collaborating with each other by percentages of 5,3; 5 and 3,8 for Turkey, Romania and Bulgaria respectively. However, Romania takes the lead when public-private co-publications are in question (3,1%). It is followed by Bulgaria and Turkey. For the same years in question; EU mean value for SMEs 40% and 9,45% for SMEs innovating in house and innovative SMEs collaborating respectively, meaning that, three countries are still below the EU average. To be able to discover the variables affecting the entrepreneurship in all three countries, section below overviews the entrepreneurship performances. Reasons for the relatively low level of development of entrepreneurship in Romania can be related to the restrictions faced by small firms, in terms of resources and their vulnerability to environmental change and uncertainty, good understanding of the factors and mechanisms that explain the development of firms (Nicoleta and Simona, 2009). In brief, we can mention two important characteristics of the innovative entrepreneurship in the country: First; the most important innovators are the large enterprises in the country as we already mentioned. Secondly, it can be observed that the some of the enterprises belong to a group of companies that are based abroad. It should be quickly noted that; foreign partnerships are anticipated to foster technology transfers and increase the innovativeness of the firms in general. 147 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu The first group of barriers behind innovative entrepreneurships is the financial problems that we already mentioned. Some of the entrepreneurs suffered of limited access to innovation funds in the past. Moreover, the allocation of the funds also showed a heterogeneous profile, however, in a way it also contributed to the technological infrastructure required for innovative activities. An example for this situation is the recent technological profile of machinery and equipment which can be seen as a factor for facilitating innovation16 and speeded-up process innovations. One of the indicators of this situation is the fact tat the main part of innovation expenditures was allocated to machines, installations, equipments and software. This shows an increase by 20% compared to the previous periods (Adopted from Sipos, 2009) Another important point is the allocation of funds for the quality, where, investment on goods and services quality seems like the most important opportunity for increasing the innovativeness of the existing entrepreneurships. For the resolution of the problem, a risk capital fund is planned to be established in the period covering 2007-13. In this framework, following schemes promoting entrepreneurship and can be efficient solutions for innovative enterprise setups; *Grant Support Scheme for Start-up businesses covering all regions, Micro Enterprises and new SMEs under the joint EU-Romania Programme for economic and social cohesion. *The micro-credit scheme entitled as The Micro-Loan Programme developed by the Romanian- American Investment Fund. *The National Council of Private SMEs agreed special partnerships for SMEs access to credits (Adopted NASR, 2006) Second group of barriers is the one that is related with the qualified human resource potential which might slow down required intellectual capital for the new innovations as well as innovation management efforts. The lack of qualified human capital can be somehow related with the limited cooperation among the industry and the research institutions (e.g. the universities) in addition to the lack of a qualified human resource pool and related databases. Moreover, weakening of the “research” profile of the institutes after privatization can also be perceived as a negative effect on innovativeness. Here, evolving training programs for entrepreneurs appears as a solution for improving the human resources that are willing to innovate. Third group of barriers can be stated as the low level of cooperation between ending up as a shading effect for knowledge spin-offs. The focus on the low-cost production factors for competitiveness can be assumed as another barrier behind the innovativeness in this group. However, it is also possible to mention a group of potentials for innovation. At a first glance; it can be stated that the privatization empowered the 16. Facilitating innovation can be defined as the one that make the access to information easier. In this framework, enabling technologies (e.g. information technologies’ infrastructure) also enhance interactive learning capacities especially in order to reach the goals of open-innovation strategies. See Van de Vrande, V., De Jong, J., Vanharbekec, W. and M.De Rochemont (2009) “Open Innovation in SMEs : Trends, Motives and Management Challenges”, Technovation, 29, pp.423 for the explanation of open innovation. 148 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education establishment of new SMEs, some of the regions gained a competitive ground and consequently, the diversity of the activities and companies in certain regions expanded both in production and service sectors. Accordingly, the concern for innovation and technological development also improved. Another opportunity for the development of innovative activities is the intensified usage of information technologies. However, strong regional differences still exist among the SMEs and limited development profile of the SMEs in less-favored areas seems like a current problem. In Bulgaria, highly entrepreneurship is definitive for the development of some industries of the national economy (e.g. telecom). Especially small or micro scale enterprises are dealing with organizational innovation, but their number is not many and innovative entrepreneurships slightly decreased in recent years. Control and measuring instruments and apparatus takes the export leadership. In here, it can also be said that some local-techno hubs are specifically dealing with novelty in entrepreneurship. One of the most significant problems entrepreneurs are facing is the high R&D costs. On the other hand, where R&D is independently conducted within business enterprises, including the cases when entrepreneurial activities evolve directly from it, it may remain unreported and not formally recorded from time to time. The cooperation among business, science and other institutions in innovative projects in Bulgaria is weak; the percentage of innovative SMEs collaborating in innovation is lower (EC, 2009 (1)). Although the cooperation between industry and academia can be stated as leverage for a satisfactory base for the knowledge spin-offs, the informality of such cooperation seems not exactly reflected in statistics. Last group of problems is related with the intellectual capital. Notably the small enterprises are suffering of a lack of qualified human resources. SMEs also suffer from a lack of sufficient information financial inflows for creating innovative products implementing information and communication technologies and establishing the required technological infrastructure for innovative purposes. Regarding the policy implementations for some of the problems’ stated above, it can be observed that the category ‘markets and innovation culture’ is of a marginal significance as to the range of support. A major part of policy measures in this category is focused on consultancy services, entrepreneurship education and fiscal incentives to the use of intellectual property rights. Attention is also paid also to the diffusion of innovative technologies, products and services (EC, 2009 (1)). Moreover, the largest number of innovation policy measures in Bulgaria supports diffusion of technologies in enterprises (35% of all measures). Having in mind the nature of innovation activities in the country is mainly based on adopting advanced technologies and processes, this policy focus appropriately reflects the present needs of the innovation enterprises in Bulgaria. It should also be noted that two aspects of the innovation process, i.e. awareness raising amongst firms on innovation and the promotion of entrepreneurship/start up, which are addressed by a significant number of measures, correspond to the existing challenges in the national innovation system (EC, 2009(1)) . 149 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu Alike in Romania, EU funds establish an important step for funding innovative entrepreneurships. In order to tackle the financial problem we already stated, a positive sign can also be assumed as the establishment of the The Bulgarian Development Bank (BDB) started its activities in the end of 2008. One of the 3 programmmes of the BDB is the high technologies programme. The BDB aims support every economically sound and environmental investment in the area of high technologies (EC, 2009 (1)). In conjunction with some other measures for start-ups such as venture capital, BDB also serves for capital scheme as an instrument supporting innovation and technologies in SMEs. EU practice also shows that micro-financing is important for innovative entrepreneurship. At this stage; the middle-sized enterprises can be assumed as more innovative when compared to the other ones. Analysis of the number, structure and dynamics of the legal entities registered in the non-financial sector indicates that micro, small and medium start-up enterprises have steadily increased in the period 1996 – 2008. Their number as a relative share compared to the preceding year dwindled during two periods (2001 – 2002 and 2008), mostly in 2008 when the overall number of micro, small and medium businesses decreased by 2.4 % compared to the year before (Arc Fund, 2010). Considering the fact that majority of the firms are SMEs in Turkey; innovationSME connection is very important in Turkish industry because SMEs are mainly responsible of transforming science and technology to the products, production methods and services that satisfies the market demand. Basic problems regarding the SME innovativeness can be summarized in three groups; a)Cost factors: It has been observed that some of the private sector firms view innovation R&D as a costly process in because of a lack of monetary resources and disability of getting funds from outside resources. Accordingly, knowhow purchase seems as a cheaper option in this case. b)Knowledge factors: As a result of the problems of education problems mentioned at the first group of variables, Firms also suffer from a lack of qualified staff especially at vocational basis. Moreover, they do also suffer from a lack of technologies and market knowledge being as the additional factors that accelerates the related pitfall. These two factors slow-down R&D activities at firm basis. c)Demand factors: Some of the SMEs in Turkey also suffer from the weak demand for innovative products in the markets that they operate. Involvement in new innovation management activities plays a key role for solving some of the problems stated above. Innovation culture in conjunction with the organizational innovation displays a potential for the implementation of future innovation activities. The main leverage in here is that the second generation of managers in SMEs gives importance to organizational innovation as a result of a paradigm shift in managerial implementations providing a strong basis for future innovative activities. 150 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education Similar to Romania, another problem appears as the lack of cooperation among some of the firms preventing the firms from benefiting of the knowledge spillovers, primarily at sector basis. Consequently, this situation causes a decrease in the sector competitiveness as well as its development. The essence of the problem is related to the fact that they do not undertake common innovative activities but they undertake them uniquely. Another dimension of the related problem is its negative reflection to the cooperation between the university and the private sector. Remaining problems can be briefly counted as the extension of the innovation culture among the regions and the vulnerable situation of the patent activities. In Turkey financing of innovation shows an increasing trend. When we take firm-based R&D funding as an example for the promotion of innovative activities, we can say that its financing was basically handled by the public side and that in recent years, the funds afforded for the innovation is gradually increasing at the private sector side. Similar to the other countries investment in high technology and uniquely the know-how transfer is quite popular in the medium and above sized enterprises; however, smaller ones are suffering of a lack of funds for establishing an efficient innovative infrastructure. Another potential is about the role of the independent projects, some of which are EU supported ones. Such independent projects serve for optimal dissemination of innovation throughout the country as well as the firms17, in other words, they act as leverage mechanism within for the firms. Being mostly cooperation projects, such initiatives are also assumed to foster the innovation capability of the related stakeholders as well as regions being as the “pilot projects” in certain ones. However we should also note that required conditions such as the number of entrepreneurships, technical and scientific infrastructures highly differ in regions. Especially, focus for firm-based innovativeness is one of the main missions of the cluster projects that became recently popular in the country18. As a result, increase in such bottom-up projects yields the effectiveness of policy implementations in the long run. 3.5. Discussion In the first place, we can deduce that innovation enablers in all countries look similar; however, there are significant differences in product and process innovation activities yielding a promising potential for Turkey19. Assuming that firm-based innovativeness is related to the same input and output variables 17. “R&D and Industrial Application Support Program” a program implemented by Small and Medium Industry Development Organization (SMIDO) aims to develop SMEs and entrepreneurs’ innovative scientific ideas and findings as well as supporting the techno-entrepreneurs. Another goal of the program is the development of the current R&D capability and supporting innovative ideas in general in the road to commercialization of the results. 18. In this context, EU supported project entitled as “Development of a National Clustering Policy” has been launched with the participation of Undersecretariat of the Prime Ministry for Foreign Trade of Turkey as the main project implementer. Concerning various sector concentrations, 2007 total number of cluster projects is 10 in Turkey since 2007. 19. As of 2006; product and process innovator SMEs percentage is 29,5; 17,8 and 19,4 for Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania respectively. 151 Uluslararası II. Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma - Girişimcilik Sempozyumu (funding, intellectual capital, high tech exports and so on) it can be observed some similarities and differences among three countries. First of all in Romania and Bulgaria, funding of innovation can be assumed as problematic; however, different policy measures are anticipated to solve it, such as the creation of BDB in Bulgaria and credit schemes in Romania. Although evolving, funding still seems as a problem for the smaller scale firms in Turkey which also undertakes similar projects. Cooperation20 appears a problem in three countries in addition to that of the academia-university partnerships21. In all countries dissemination of the innovation culture should be evaluated and similar improvements should also be observed in the medium run for fostering innovation involvement. This is especially important for the resolution of the innovative start-ups22 for Turkey and Romania although the number of incubators is increasing especially in technoparks. Such an opportunity, while developing the innovativeness capacity of the firms, may also speed-up the dissemination of the innovation among the firms by the common use as well the development of the spin-offs among the firms. For Romania, integration within the EU projects can be assumed as an opportunity for the know-how transfer. Such a know-how and technology transfer towards companies working in loan system, which are able to develop if they could have their own brand and an exterior-oriented image (Tamasila et al. 2008). Lastly, technology transfer centers and high-tech incubators are expected to foster the firm innovativeness as well as the innovative outputs such as patenting. Besides enhancing innovation ability; these factors are also anticipated to make a positive effect on the innovation management as well as on the knowledge transfer which we mention. For Bulgaria, new funding and training schemes can assumed as a positive contribution for the new start-ups in the long-term. Long-term incentives for promoting both academic and business entrepreneurship are advised as a solution. Also entrepreneurship training is an important asset for promoting the sector wide entrepreneurship. Establishment of entrepreneurship centers within universities and increase of entrepreneurship training activities can be considered as positive signs for increasing the firm-level innovativeness. For Turkey; government investment programs and national innovation strategy can be used as effective tools for fostering firm-based innovations. When these two are considered in a nutshell, two potential outputs can be mentioned. 20. Besides academia-university partnerships, different cooperation models can also be proposed. New cooperative strategies include models such as joint ventures, strategic alliances, joint-productions, coalitions, clusters and networks (Elfring, T. and Hulsink, W. (2003), Gils, A.V. and Zwart, P. (2004), “Knowledge acquisition and learning in Dutch and Belgian SMEs: the role of strategic alliances”, European Management Journal, Vol. 22 No. 6, pp. 685. “Networks in entrepreneurship: the case of high-technology firms”, Small Business Economics, Vol. 21, pp. 409). 21. Such cooperation can also be generalized for the actors of triple helix. See Bosco, M.G. (2007). “Innovation, R&D and Technology Transfer: Policies towards a Regional Innovation System. The Case of Lombardy.”, European Planning Studies, 15(8), pp.1085 and Edgington, D.W. (2008) “The Japanese Innovation System: University-Industry Linkages, Small Firms and Regional Technology Clusters” Prometheus, 26(1), pp.1 for a definition of triple helix actors. 22. Especially, non-financial issues are considered. 152 Girişimcilik - Eğitim İlişkisi / Entrepreneurship - Education The first one is the creation of more innovative markets (including both process and product innovation as outputs in relatively stronger sectors such as textile, automotive, agribusiness). Second output is the improvement in innovative market management mechanisms in a way yielding with an increased competitiveness level in general terms. In order to achieve this, additional economic policy implications may be required in parallel to sophistication of the innovative inputs needed such as the R&D activities, intellectual capital and scientific infrastructure at the firm side (e.g. labs). Regarding the increase in the number of universities, increase in the university/industry cooperation can also contribute to the process. For solving the innovation awareness problem, creation of a brokerage system among the firms or institutes for collaborations (IFCs)23 which may especially facilitate the innovation networking process. 4.Conclusion Based on the recent data and policy reports, the study briefly analyzed general situation of innovation by examining some of the differences in policy measures and levels of firm-based innovativeness in three countries. It can be assumed some common policy framework keeping in mind that the sectors and regional characteristics differ among three countries. As innovation is used as also used a tool for competitiveness, it is possible to perceive the related measures in a regional development nutshell. Here, the industrial district policies can be assumed as an example. In this framework, the usage of the innovation fostering tools such as technoparks and technocenters within industrial districts can be efficient motivators for fostering innovative entrepreneurships such as the formation of the new incubators for the new start-ups, localization of knowledge24 for efficient spin-offs and exchange of both tacit and implicit knowledge among the firms, creation of efficient pools for qualified human resource and effective allocation of the funds for the existing firms. Such a concentration may also enhance targeting of the academia/business cooperation and exchange of technical information in conjunction of the related consultancy services for increasing firmbased innovations. Therefore, regional policies (e.g. industrial district formation ones) can be somehow end up with the leverage of innovative entrepreneurs in the market and improvement of the promising position of innovation related competitiveness. 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