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Full - SEAHI PUBLICATIONS AND ACADEMIC JOURNALS
International Journal of Innovative Environmental Studies Research 3(1):1-13, Jan-Mar. 2015 © SEAHI PUBLICATIONS, 2015 www.seahipaj.org ISSN: 2354-2918 EXAMINATION OF GÖNEN AND KOCASU RIVER DELTAS IN TERMS OF LAND USE AND CHANGES IN SHORELINE (NW TURKEY) *EMRE Özşahin University of Namık Kemal, Değirmenaltı Campus Faculty of Art and Science, Department of Geography, 59030 Tekirdağ – TURKEY Tel.: +90 282 250 26 96 – 2696 Fax: +90 282 250 99 25 *E-mail address corresponding author: eozsahin@nku.edu.tr Alternative E-mail address: ozsahine@hotmail.com ABSTRACT Deltas are among the most important geomorphologic elements in Turkey, the museum of coastal morphology, whose sea coasts total to 9000 km even without the lake coasts added in. These geomorphologic units are substantially different from other areas in terms of their geographical features. This study aims to examine Gönen and Kocasu river deltas in terms of land use and changes in shorelines and to introduce these deltas internationally. Also, an attempt has been made to answer the following questions in the study: “What other large deltas in the world are similar to these deltas?; “What characteristic features of these deltas can be associated with the large deltas of the world?”; “What sort of changes have been observed in time in these deltas in terms of land use and shoreline?”; and “What are the reasons for and the results of these changes?”. 1/25.000 scale topography and soil and 1/100.000 scale geology maps were used in the study as basic and base maps. In addition, satellite images with various dating and detecting features were used. These materials were processed through such techniques as Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). All the work was checked by means of insitu field work. It has been concluded that Gönen ve Kocasu river deltas in the coast of the Sea of Marmara can be associated with the world famous Nile (Egypt) and Tiber (Italy) river deltas in terms of delta formation periods and geometrical shapes. It has also been found that these two deltas have characteristic features that can be included in the world literature. Changes involving an increase in agriculture, settlement, and underbrush and a decrease in forest and open fields have been identified in the delta areas. Shorelines in both deltas have regressed, though slightly. Key words: Coastal morphology, Delta, Sea of Marmara, Gönen Brook Delta, Kocasu River Delta INTRODUCTION Deltas are coastal prairies formed by sediments collected by erosion and corrosion caused by rivers and later shaped by secondary forces such as waves, currents, and tides (İnandık, 1971; Coleman & Wright, 1975; Gollaway, 1975; Elliott, 1986; Wright, 1985; Coleman et al., 1986; Coleman & Roberts, 1988; Whateley & Pickering, 1989; Oti & Postma, 1995; Bloom, 1991; Monroe & Wicander, 2005; Schwartz, 2005; Hoşgören, 2010; 2011). In addition, these units are sediment masses which have a wide variety of morphology and storage types (Orton & Reading, 1993; Hill et al., 2001; Bird, 2008). Hence, in recent years they have been described and identified as sediment masses in outfalls that accompany coastal progression (positively or negatively) (Özşahin, 2009). 1 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 In order for a delta to form, sediments collected by the rivers should not be carried away by marine processes (waves, currents, and tides), and the sediments should be larger in quantity than the materials that are carried in this manner (Coleman, 1981; Hori et al., 2002). These areas have a sensitive structure in which both land and marine ecosystems are integrated (Whateley & Pickering, 1989; Wright, 1985). However, intense and unconscious increase in land use change in these morphological units that are extremely rich in both terrestrial and subterranean resources (Morgan & Shaver, 1970; Lou Broussard, 1975; Giosan & Bhattacharya, 2005) has led to deterioration in the sensitive balance in these areas. As a result of increased human impact on these areas, such practices as agriculture, animal husbandry, settlements, tourism, industry, and transportation have endangered the sophisticated balance in the dynamic systems in the deltas. Since some of the delta formation impacts are observable and traceable, they present both recent geological (Whateley & Pickering, 1989; Oti & Postma, 1995; Kazancı et al., 1999) and recent geomorphologic situations (Erinç, 1995; Öner et al., 2002; Erol, 2003; Öner, 2008) and hence support the accurate interpretation of paleogeography. Deltas are among the most important geomorphologic elements in Turkey, the museum of coastal morphology, whose sea coasts total to 9000 km even without the lake coasts added in (Ekinci & Özşahin, 2012). These geomorphologic units are substantially different from other areas in terms of their geographical features. This study aims to examine Gönen and Kocasu river deltas in the Sea of Marmara (Güneysu, 1998), which are the modern representations of deltas which have been developing since the Late Quaternary (Kazancı et al., 1999; Emre et al., 1998; Alçiçek et al., 2003), in terms of land use and changes in shorelines and to introduce these deltas internationally (Figure 1). In addition, similarities between the characteristic features of some of the important deltas of the world and those of these deltas that are different in terms of facies distribution and geometries are provided. Figure 1. Location of Gönen and Kocasu river deltas The present study makes an attempt to answer the following questions: “What other large deltas in the world are similar to these deltas?”; “What characteristic features of these deltas can be associated with the large deltas of the world?”; “What sort of changes have been observed in time 2 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 in these deltas in terms of land use and shoreline?”; “What are the reasons for and the results of these changes?”. MATERIALS AND METHODS Change occurring in the course of time can be determined by comparing and contrasting past and present data (Chen et al., 1998; Skalet et al., 1992; Sesli et al., 2010; İrtem & Sacin, 2012). In today’s studies in these fields, such techniques as Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) are used for data collection, analysis, and mapping (Anonymous, 1995; Johnston et al., 2000; Verburg et al., 2009; Somuncu et al., 2010). The present study has also employed this method in order to identify the changes in land use and shorelines in the delta areas. Satellite images with different dating and detection features have been used for this aim (Table 1). Land use map has been created by using satellite images of the year 1987 and the year 2009 since both deltas have had similarities in this regard. Land use map of the year 2010 has been created by the help of field work and satellite images of the year 2009. Shoreline changes in delta coasts have been obtained through the oldest and most recent satellite images and maps. Table 1. Satellite images used No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Path/Row 195/032 180/032 180/032 194/032 181/032 181/032 Location Gönen river delta Gönen river delta Gönen river delta Kocasu river delta Kocasu river delta Kocasu river delta Sensor Landsat MSS Landsat TM Landsat TM Landsat MSS Landsat TM Landsat TM Acquisition data 01.06.1975 11.05.1987 26.08.2009 15.11.1972 05.06.1987 26.08.2009 In addition to these materials and the related literature, 1/25.000 scale raster topography sheets prepared by the General Command of Mapping have been used as basic and base maps. These topography maps have been digitized and transferred to digital environment in vector format. These maps have been processed through related methods and techniques. The geological features in the coastal area where rivers flow to the sea have been compiled from 1/100.000 and 1/500.000 scale geology sheets prepared by the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration. In addition, information regarding the sediments carried to the deltas has been obtained from the observation catalogues dated 1996 prepared by Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration. Climate data have been obtained from the Republic of Turkey General Directorate of Meteorology Gönen and Bursa Meteorology Stations by going through climate data of many years. Data regarding soil characteristics have been obtained from 1/25,000 scale digital soil maps presented by the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Food, Agriculture, and Livestock and the analysis of soil samples collected during field work. All data obtained through the mentioned methods have been combined within the framework of the study and used to seek answers to the research questions from a geographical standpoint. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Changes in land use and shoreline in Gönen river delta Gönen river delta is located in northwest Turkey between the east meridians 54° 41' 00'' and 56° 07' 08'' and between the north parallels 44° 56' 49'' and 44° 66' 44'' (UTM Zone 37N – WGS84). The delta area of 33.4 km² is formed by Gönen river with a drainage area of 2174 km² and a main branch length of 134 km. The coastal length of the delta is 13 km; its slope is 1.6‰, and its progression amount is 5.5 km. Its total area that does not contain water is 28 km² (Kazancı et al., 1999). Delta area is wave-dominant in terms of its processes, sandy in terms of its lithologic structure, and bears crescent shaped delta characteristics geometrically (Özşahin, 2009). Gönen river delta is similar to Nile river delta in Egypt in terms of these features (Ekinci & Özşahin, 2012) because 3 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 both Nile river delta and Gönen river delta are wave dominant deltas with distributing channels (Figure 2). Figure 2. Map of Nil river delta and Gönen river delta In the delta area formed by Quaternary period alluvial sediments, alluvium density has been identified to be 64 m as a result of the drilling provided by the Republic of Turkey State Hydraulic Works. Sandy levels are located at the top part of the density (14 m). Below the sandy level, graveled (7.5 m), sandy-graveled (8.5 m), clayed-graveled (16 m), and silty-graveled (18 m) levels are aligned. Further below, main rock is situated (Kazancı et al., 1997). Delta area has a geological characteristic bordered by Neocene formations that surround it. These geological characteristics have also caused tectonics to have impact on the delta. The KepekliÇifteçeşmeler and Edincik-Bandırma faults that border the delta area in the south play an important role in this regard. That has caused the delta to progress towards the active fault rigidities and directly resulted not only in residual provisions but in the changes in sea levels as well (Kazancı et al., 1999). The formation of delta geomorphology can be attributed to erosion and deposition caused by tectonic movements as well as river and wave processes (Yalçınlar, 1946; Hüsam, 1987; Efe, 1993a; Efe, 1993b; Cürebal, 1999; Soykan & Cürebal, 1999; Okumuş, 2006). Old river courses, marshlands, free meander shapes, sand shapes, accumulation ranges, terrace levels, lakes, and lagoons can be seen on the delta area (Cürebal, 1999; Efe, 1995; Figure 3). Figure 3. Geomorphology and shoreline changes map of Gönen river delta 4 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 Gönen River arises from a strait with anchored embedded meanders, keeps creating meanders, and lies towards north by creating two meander bends. Both of these two meanders develop towards east. The one in the south is larger compared to the one in the north. Also natural sets seen on the sides of these meander bends from place to place have created a certain level of elevation on the delta plain (Cürebal, 1999). The delta area is under the influence of Mediterranean climate as a macroclimate type (Efe, 1997). According to Tahirova meteorology station data, annual average temperature is 14.5 °C. The coldest month is January with 5.4 °C, and the hottest month is July with 23.8 °C. Annual rainfall in the delta area is 580.5 mm. 39.17% of the annual rainfall is observed in winter; 28.82% is observed in spring; and 27.36 % is observed in autumn. Total rainfall in summer is 9.56%. Gönen River, which has an irregular flow regime, has an average flow of 14.2 m³/s, with maximum and minimum transient flows being 911 m³/s and 0.024 m³/s respectively (EİE, 1996). The drainage area of Gönen river delta is under the impact of active tectonics (Şaroğlu et al., 1987; Emre et al., 1997a; 1997b; 1998; Kazancı et al., 1999; Alçiçek, 2003). That causes a rather high denudation and loss of soil compared to other rivers on the same climate zone (Kazancı et al., 1997; 1999). The denudation rate of the brook varies between 0.141 and 0.003 ton/km³/year, and the total soil loss varies between 306.9 and 6.3 ton/year. According to the results of 3 soil analyses on different parts of Gönen river delta, there is only Entisol (taxonomy classification) type soil groups in the vicinity. This soil type has a clayey and clayed clayey characteristic. Lime ratio is between 1.5% and 2.5%. pH ratio and degree are between light acid with a value of 6.39 and light alkali with a value of 8.65. It has already been determined that soils in deltas receive an acidic characteristic as they get closer to shoreline from the delta area. That is caused by the lagoon environments in the shores where fresh and salty waters mingle densely. Gönen river delta also called Tahirova (Efe, 1993a; Efe, 1993b; Cürebal, 1999; Soykan & Cürebal, 1999; Okumuş, 2006) is an area where agricultural activities are common. This area is used for rice, wheat, and corn cultivation. Agricultural use with no scruples and with a high level of competition has brought about substantial changes in land use. Hence, major changes have occurred in shoreline between the years 1975 and 2010, and changes in land use have taken place between the years 1987 and 2010 (Tables 2; 3; Figures 4; 5). Table 2. Changes in land use in Gönen river delta 1987 Landuse Settements Agricultural Areas Forest Areas Scrub Areas Bare Areas Total 2010 ha % ha % 70.6 3401.1 1311.6 1077.1 2771.4 0.8 39.4 15.2 12.5 32.1 192.5 5139.9 334.6 1267.6 1556.8 2.3 60.5 3.9 14.9 18.3 8631.8 100.0 8491.5 100.0 Table 3. Shoreline changes in Gönen river delta Shoreline 1975 2010 Total Changes Length (m) 14.6 14.8 0.2 5 Total Change (%) 1.4 21.1 -11.3 2.4 -13.8 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 Figure 4. Land use changes map of Gönen river delta Figure 5. Land use changes -Quantity Rate (%) in Gönen river delta The biggest change in land use in Gönen river delta has been observed in agriculture in the abovementioned years. In the area, the agricultural land which was 3401.1 ha and had a ratio of 39.4% in 1987 expanded to 5139.9 ha and had a ratio of 60.5% in 2010 (Table 2, Figures 4-5). This change by 21.1% in 23 years occurring in agricultural land shows itself as an increase. Such increase is the result of pressure on the agricultural lands due to intense rice production in the delta in the recent years (Özşahin, 2008). The second biggest change in the delta area is related to underbrush areas. These areas which were 1077.1 ha and had a ratio of 12.5% in 1987 increased to 1267.6 ha and had a ratio of 14.9% in 2010. However, this total increase by 2.4% caused a decrease in the forest areas. Hence, the forest areas showed a decrease of 11.3% between 1987 (1311.6 ha-15.2%) and 2010 (334.6 ha3.9%) (Table 2; Figures 4-5). This decrease is parallel to the expansion of agricultural areas. When maps in Figure 4 are compared, it can be seen that agricultural areas have occupied the underbrush areas, and underbrush areas have occupied the forest areas. The least change in the related years has been observed in settlements by 1.4%. The settlement areas which were 70.6 ha and had a ratio of 0.8% in 1987 expanded to 192.5 ha and had a ratio of 2.3% in 2010. This expansion is parallel with the increase in population. Open fields, the last level of land use, showed changes in the negative direction between 1987 (2771.4 ha-32.1%) and 2010 (1556.8 ha-18.3%) (Table 2; Figures 4-5). This change was due to 6 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 predominant use of these areas as a result of intense agricultural pressure on the delta as a result of expansion in the agricultural fields. In addition to changes in land use in the delta area, shoreline changes also took place (Table 3). These changes occurred in the form of positive progression of the shores. However, the progression has not reached very high levels, and it has been calculated to be 0.16 m in the area where Gönen River flows into the sea. Progression in Gönen river delta is decreasing day by day. Especially the anthropogenic activities such as dams and irrigation in the basin area hamper the carriage of sediments by the rivers. Hence, no geomorphologic expansion occurs in the delta. Changes in land use and shoreline in Kocasu river delta Kocasu river delta is situated in the northwest of Turkey and to the northwest of Gönen river delta. It is located between the east meridians 28° 22' 36'' and 28° 37' 19'' and the north parallels 40° 17' 24'' and 40° 23' 52' (UTM Zone 37N – WGS84). The delta field formed by Kocasu River whose drainage area is 27.600 km² and main branch length is 321 km has an area of 50.7 km². The shore length of the delta is 20.8 km; its slope is 1.1‰, and progression amount is 3.5 km. Its total area that does not contain water is 48 km² (Kazancı et al., 1997; 1999). Kocasu river delta is wave-dominant in terms of its processes (Emre, 1997a; 1997b; Sayılı et al., 1997; Yıldırım, 2002), sandy in terms of its lithologic structure, and carries crescent shaped delta characteristics geometrically (Özşahin, 2009). With these features, it is similar to Gönen river delta. In appearance, it is similar to Tiber river delta in Italy, one of the mega deltas in the world (Figure 6). Figure 6. Map of Tiber river delta and Kocasu river delta Delta area is bordered by Paleozoic formations. Mesozoic and Cenozoic geological stacks are also seen. The stack density in the delta area formed by quaternary period alluvial sediments is 45-55 m (Kazancı et al., 1997; 1999). These geological features were significantly influential on the increase of tectonic movements. Thus, the delta area is bordered by Karacabey and Zeytinbağ faults form the south (Emre et al., 1997a; 1997b). That has caused tectonics to play decisive roles in the development of the delta in the quaternary period (Ergin et al., 1996; Görür et al., 1997a; 1997b; Kazancı et al., 1997; 1999). It can be said that erosion and deposition activities resulting from river and wave processes besides tectonic movements were influential on the formation of the geomorphology of Kocasu river delta, as it was the case in Gönen river delta. Old river courses, marshlands, free meander shapes, sand shapes, accumulation ranges, terrace levels, lakes, and lagoons can be seen on the delta area (Kazancı et al., 1997; 1999; Özşahin, 2008; İrtem & Sarı, 2013). 7 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 Figure 7. Geomorphology and shoreline changes map of Kocasu river delta According to Bursa meteorology station data for the delta area which is in the same climate zone with Gönen River, annual average temperature is 18.8 °C. This value is higher than that of Gönen river delta by 4.3 °C. The coldest month is January with 5.2°C, and the hottest month is July with 24.0 °C. Annual rainfall in Kocasu river delta (667.9 mm) is higher than that of Gönen river delta. 39.45 % of the total annual rainfall occurs in winter; 25.63% occurs in spring; and 25.48% occurs in autumn. Summer season is the period in which the least total rainfall occurs (9.43%). The drainage area of Kocasu river has a tectonic based distinctive discordance shaped by faults lying in the east-west direction (Emre et al., 1997a; 1997b). Therefore, the tectonic structure became influential on the formation and development of drainage net (Kazancı et al., 1997). The existence of two large natural lakes and other irrigation facilities in the drainage area of the river hampers the carriage of sediments. That may explain the situation why Gönen river with a smaller basin has more sediment transportation compared to Kocasu river (Kazancı et al., 1999). The denudation rate of Kocasu River varies between 0.0723 and 0.0056 ton/km³/year, and total soil loss varies between 1995.4 and 154.4 ton/year. However, the average flow of Kocasu River is 158.5 m³/sec, maximum flow being 1322 m³/sec, and minimum flow being 7.07 m³/sec (EİE, 1996). According to the results of 4 soil analyses on different parts of Kocasu river delta, there is only Entisol (taxonomy classification) type soil groups in the vicinity. This soil type has a dense clayey characteristic. Lime ratio is between 2.77% and 5.55%. pH ratio and degree are between light alkali with a value of 7.96 and strong alkali with a value of 8.95. Soils in deltas receive an alkali characteristic as they get closer to shorelines. That is caused by the lagoon environments in the shores where fresh and salty waters mingle intenselt as seen in the case of Gönen river delta. 8 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 Kocasu river delta, which has been declared to be wetland conservation field, is an area where agriculture and fishing activities are undertaken. However, the fact that it is a conservation area and the existence of two large wetlands in the delta limit these activities to a certain level. The anthropogenic activities which have increased lately have caused some changes in the land use in the delta. Some very clear changes have been observed in the shore line between the years 1972 and 2010 and in land use between the years 1987 and 2010 (Table 4; 5; Figures 7; 8; 9). Table 4. Changes in land use in Kocasu river delta Landuse 1987 ha Settements Agricultural Areas Forest Areas Scrub Areas Bare Areas Total 2010 % 522.2 2.4 6547.5 30.6 5190.1 24.2 1810.6 8.5 7350.1 34.3 21420.4 100.0 ha % 1354.6 8853.6 3748.4 4715.7 2991.2 21663.5 6.3 40.9 17.3 21.8 13.8 100.0 Total Change (%) 3.8 10.3 -6.9 13.3 -20.5 Table 5. Shoreline changes in the Kocasu river delta Shoreline 1972 2010 Total Changes Length (m) 21.9 21.6 0.3 Figure 8. Land use changes map of Kocasu river delta 9 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 Figure 9. Land use changes Quantity Rate (%) in Kocasu river delta The biggest areal change in Kocasu river delta occurred in underbrush areas. These areas which were 1810.6 ha and had a ratio of 8.5% in 1987 expanded to 4715.7 ha and had a ratio of 21.8% in 2010 (Table 4; Figures 8-9). The total change in the underbrush in the 23 years is 13.3%. This is mostly related to olive growing and the destruction of forest areas in the vicinity of the delta, and the evidence can be clearly seen form the land use maps created through analysis based on satellite maps (Figure 8). This idea is also confirmed by the changes in the forest areas in the related years. The forest areas which were 5190.1 ha and had a ratio of 24.2% in 1987 decreased to 3748.4 ha and had a ratio of 17.3% in 2010 (Table 4; Figures 8-9). The second biggest change in the delta area is related to agricultural fields. These fields were 6547.5 ha and had a ratio of 30.6% in 1987, but they increased to 8853.6 ha and had a ratio of 40.9% in 2010. The total ratio of the changes occurring in agricultural areas is 10.3% (Table 4; Figures 8-9). The increase in the agricultural areas is followed by the increase in settlement areas. The settlement areas which were 522.2 ha and had a ratio of 2.4% in 1987 expanded to 1354.6 ha and had a ratio of 6.3% in 2010. General total change is 3.8% (Table 4; Figures 8; 9). Open fields, which are the last level of land use, showed changes in the negative direction as was the case in Gönen river delta. The open fields which were 7350.1 ha and had a ratio of 34.3% in 1987 regressed to 2991.2 ha and had a ratio of 13.8% in 2010. Total change is -20.5% in terms of decrease (Table 4; Figures 8-9). Shorelines in Kocasu river delta experienced some changes, too. The 21.9 m length of shores in 1972 regressed to 21.6 m in 2010 (Table 5). In this 38-year period, a negative change of 0.3 m was observed in shore line in the delta area. This regression can be seen more clearly in the west side of the delta (Figure 8). CONCLUSION In terms of formation processes and geometric shapes, Gönen and Kocasu river deltas of the Sea of Marmara resemble two of the most important deltas of the world respectively; the Nile (Egypt) and Tiber (Italy) river deltas. Both deltas have specific geographical conditions and characteristics that make them candidates to get into the world literature. It has been concluded that agriculture, settlement, and underbrush areas in the deltas showed an increase in time, whereas forest and open fields showed a decrease. Shorelines regressed in both deltas, though slightly. The major cause of the change in land use is human being. These changes have taken place as a result of human activities both in deltas and in river basins. However, this change has become negative with each passing day. That will cause sea level changes, higher level of regression in shore lines, and collapse of the ecosystem in the delta. The fact that Kocasu river delta has been declared as an area of conservation shows that it is in a better condition than Gönen river delta, which is confirmed by land use changes, too. However, what has been done up to now is not sufficient. 10 Emre …. Int. J. Innovative Environ. Studies Res. 3(1):1-13, 2015 Planning for a more accurate land and shore use in delta areas as soon as possible and declaring these areas as protected areas even partially will help these unique ecosystems to continue their existence in the future. REFERENCES Alçiçek, M.C., İleri, Ö., Erdem, Ö.B., Gül, A. and Kırman, E.: Biga ve Gönen Çayları Deltalarının Güncel Tortulları ve Dokusal Özellikleri. Marmara Denizi Güneyinde Kuvaterner Deniz Düzeyi Değişimleri ve Kocasu-Gönen Çayı Deltalarının Evrimi, TÜBİTAK YDABÇAG-198 Y 076, Ankara (2003). Anonymous: Philip’s Geography Dictonary. 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