alatoo academıc studıes - International Ataturk

alatoo academıc studıes - International Ataturk

 ALATOO ACADEMIC STUDIES ISSN: 1694­5263 omnim Volume 3 ­ Number 2 ­ Year 2008 CONTENTS SOCIAL SCIENCES ALATOO ACADEMIC STUDIES International Scientific Journal a publication of International Ataturk Alatoo University Address: Microregion Thunguch, Gorky Street, 72048 Bishkek KYRGYZSTAN Tel: +996 312 631425 +996 312 631426 Fax: +996 312631428 E­mail: aas@iaau.edu.kg Журнал Кыргыз Республикасыны
н Юстиция министирлигинд
е катталган, каттоо куболугу № 969. EXCHANGE RATE VOLATILITY EFFECT ON DÜNYA BANKASININ PROJELERİNİN KIRGIZİSTAN TRADE IN KAZAKHSTAN EKONOMİSİNDEKİ YERİ Mesut Yilmaz & Yessengali Oskenbayev 12 Osman Salih Kadı & Filiz Kadı 96 CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE ON TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION APPLIED SCIENCES Tara Singh & Vijay Athavale 21 TEACHING SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMMING USING РОЛЬ И МЕСТО НОМАДИЗМА В PYTHON ЕВРАЗИЙСКОМ ПРОСТРАНСТВЕ Niyazi Arı 112 Аширалиев Дж.А. 34 FPGA VE HDL ALANINDAKİ GELİŞMELERİN KÜRESELLEŞME SÜRECİNDE TARIM’DA DİGİTAL ELEKTRONİK EĞİTİMİNDE VE SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİRLİK VE ÇEVRE LABARATUVAR ŞARTLARINDA GÖRÜLEN SORUNLARI ETKİLERİ Eyüp Zengin 44 Vedat Kıray 124 PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES: CASE WEB­BASED METHODOLOGY IN LEARNING OF TURKEY Myrzagul Zakirova 132 Ali Kemal Sayın 55 OBJECT ORIENTED CONCEPT IN PRACTICE SOME OPINIONS ON TURKIC HISTORY Usonbek Jusupov 137 EDUCATION AND PROBLEMS OF TEACHING Mualla U. Yücel &. İsmail Mangaltepe 63 THE IMPACT OF SELFISH NODE BEHAVIOR ON ARIADNE AND SEAD SECURE ROUTING АДАМ БАЛАСЫНЫН ИЧКИ ДҮЙНӨСӨ PROTOCOLS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORK Орозбек Ч. Кожогулов 73 Shahriar ShamilUulu, Vedat Kiray& Niyazi Ari 142
ETHNIC IDENTITY, LANGUAGE POLICY AND COGNITION: BURYATS IN RUSSIA AND HISPANICS IN US COMPARED Polina Dashinimaeva 76 ЗАМАНБАП МАРКЕТИНГ КОНЦЕПЦИЯСЫ ЖАНА КЫРГЫЗСТАНДАГЫ АБАЛ
«СЕН САТЫП АЛДЫН–ӨЗҮН
КҮНӨӨЛҮҮСҮН»
Азамат Максүдүнов 84 KIRGIZİSTAN’DA Kİ AHISKA TÜRKLERİ M. Guseynova 89 КЫРГЫЗ ТИЛИНДЕГИ КЕСИПТИК ЛЕКСИКАНЫ ИЗИЛДӨӨДӨГҮ МАСЕЛЕЛЕР Усмамбетов Б.Ж. 92 Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 ALATOO ACADEMIC
STUDIES
ISSN: 1694‐5263 Volume 3 ‐ Number 2 ‐ Year 2008 (International Scientific Journal) a publication of International Ataturk Alatoo University Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN February 2008 3
Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 4
Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 AIM AND SCOPE OF THE JOURNAL Alatoo Academic Studies is a peer‐reviewed refereed journal published semiannually by International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyz Republic), one of leading international universities of both Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia with its multi‐language focus in education. The journal’s mission is to enlarge Eurasian scholarsip in different fields. The journal intends to deal with subjects ranging from economics, business, politics, humanities, sociology, religion, linguistics, applies sciences, engneering and other fields. The regional focus, Eurasian one, has a special place in the journal’s mission. So, those articles concerning Eurasian scholarship will be specially welcomed by the journal. The journal’s focus is the problems and new phenomena caused by social, economic, political, cultural changes in newly independent states of the ex‐ Soviet Union. Since transition brought many different things to the related countries, the journal especially seeks original papers dealing with all aspects of these changes. Though the major focus of the journal is on Eurasia, papers dealing with other subjects can also be acccepted. Especially, inter disciplinary studies having views from different perspectives are valued for the journal. The journal accepts articles, research notes, book reviews, etc. in English, Turkish, Kyrgyz and Russian languages. 5
Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 EDITOR Prof. Dr. Erol ORAL, International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN) CO­EDITOR Prof. Dr. Mariam EDILOVA, International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN) JOURNAL COORDINATORS Ibrahim KELES, International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN) Talant ASAN UULU, International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN) JOURNAL MAILING ADDRESS: International Ataturk Alatoo University Microregion Tunguch Gorky Street, 720048, Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN JOURNAL WEB ADDRESS: www.iaau.edu.kg/aas JOURNAL CONTACT E­MAILS: Ibrahim KELES & Talant ASAN UULU, (journal coordinators) at aas@iaau.edu.kg, qelesh@hotmail.com 6
Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 JOURNAL SCIENCE BOARD Prof. Dr. Erol ORAL International Ataturk Alatoo University (Kyrgyzstan) Acad.Prof.Dr.Altay BORUBAEV (Mathematics) Kyrgyz National Attestation Committee (Kyrgyzstan) Prof. Dr. Ibrahim HASGUR, (Statistics & Law) TBMM (Turkey) Prof. Dr. Mariam EDILOVA, (Philosophy) Kyrgyz State University (Kyrgyzstan) Prof. Dr. Valentin BABAK (Information Technology in Economics) Kyrgyz Technical University (Kyrgyzstan) Prof. Dr. Vildan SERIN (Central Asian Economies) Fatih University (Turkey) Prof. Dr. Beyshebay Usubaliev (Kyrgyz Language) East University named Mahmoud Kashgary Barskany (Kyrgyzstan) Prof. Dr. Tashpolot SADYKOV (Turkish Language) International Ataturk Alatoo University (Kyrgyzstan) Prof. Dr. Nurdan ASLAN, (Economics) Marmara University (Turkey) Prof. Dr. Sadık ACAR, Dokuz Eylul University (Turkey) Prof. Dr. Ismail OZSOY, (Economic History) Fatih University (Turkey) Prof. Dr. Asylbek IBRAEV (Phonetics) International Ataturk Alatoo University (Kyrgyzstan) Prof. Dr. Hasan SELCUK, (Law) Marmara University (Turkey) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zinaida KARAYEVA (Literature) Kyrgyzstan International University (Kyrgyzstan) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Georgiy MRAOSHNICHENKO (Artificial Intelligence, Cryptology) International Ataturk Alatoo University (Kyrgyzstan) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Muhsin HALIS, (Management) Sakarya University (Turkey) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Orozbek KOCOGULOV (Physics) International Ataturk Alatoo University (Kyrgyzstan) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa OKMEN (Local Governments & Urbanization) Celal Bayar University (Turkey) Assis. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ORHAN (Econometry) Fatih University (Turkey) Assis. Prof. Dr. Vedat KIRAY, (Electronics, Robotics & Fuzzy Logic) International Ataturk Alatoo University (Kyrgyzstan) Assis. Prof. Dr. Mesut YILMAZ, (Ecomomics) Suleyman Demirel University (Kazakhstan) Assis. Prof. Dr. Mustafa AKIN, (Development Economies) Maltepe University (Turkey) Assis. Prof. Dr. Ahmet AKIN (Finance) Fatih University (Turkey) Assis. Prof. Dr. László VASA, (Management) Szent István University (Hungary) Assis. Prof. Dr. Ghiyath NAKSHBENDI (International Business) Sangamore Group (USA) Assis. Prof. Dr. Lutfu SAGBANSUA, (Operations Management) International Ataturk Alatoo University (Kyrgyzstan) Assis. Prof. Dr. Nizamettin BAYYURT (Quantitative Techniques) Fatih University (Turkey) Assis. Prof. Dr. Ihsan YILMAZ, (Socio‐legal studies, Law and Politics, Religion and Secularism) University of London (United Kingdom) Assis. Prof. Dr. Cihan BULUT, (Economic Policy) Qafqaz University (Azerbaijan) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alexander TSOY (Russian Language) Litarature Institute of A.M. Gorki (Russian Federation)
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 8
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 CALL FOR PAPERS AND SUBMISSION GUIDELINES CALL FOR PAPERS Alatoo Academic Studies is a double‐blind refereed journal which seeks togather original and unpublished academic papers. The journal accepts original papers dealing with scholarship in economics, business, international relations, humanities, sociology, religion, linguistics, literature, applied sciences, engineering, etc. Those papers focusing on newly independent states will be especially welcomed. The journal accepts articles, research notess, book reviews. The manuscripts can include theoretical, conceptual, empirical and case study meaningful contributions which will advance our understanding in the related areas. The journal is semiannually published. The deadlines for submissions are March 1 and September 1. All submissions will be subjected to “double
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Fisher, J. and Madet, G. (2000), Implications of Globalisation, Journal of Business Development, 34(2):
102-123
Books
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Mariam, G. J. (1999), Managing the Change, Basic Books: New York.
Papers
David, H. (1997), Radon Risk Models', in A.R. Knight and B.Harrad (eds.) Indoor Air and Human Health,
Proceedings of the Seventh Life Sciences Symposium; 29-31 October 1981; Knoxville, USA. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, pp 69-78.
Chapters in Edited Books
Teece, D.J. (1987), Capturing Value from Technological Innovation: Integration, Strategic Partnering and
Licensing Decisions, in R.B. Guile and H. Brooks (eds.) Technology and global industry: Companies and
Nations in the World Economy, Washington DC: National Academy Press, pp.19-38.
Dissertations
Salk, J.E. (1992), Shared Management Joint Ventures: Their Developmental Patterns, Challenges and
Possibilities, Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, MA.
Online documents
Van de Vliert, E. (2002), Thermoclimate, Culture, and Poverty as Country-level Roots of Workers' Wages,
[www document] http://www.jibs.net (accessed 13 January 2003).
Online journal articles
Van de Vliert, E. (2002), Thermoclimate, Culture, and Poverty as Country-level Roots of Workers' Wages,
Journal of Business, doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400007
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 SOCIAL SCIENCES 11
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 EXCHANGE RATE VOLATILITY EFFECT ON TRADE IN KAZAKHSTAN
Dr. Mesut YILMAZ,
Yessengali OSKENBAYEV
Suleyman Demirel University, Almaty
ABSTRACT
This work brings an exchange rate volatility effect on trade in Kazakhstan. we focus on
exchange rate volatility effect and evaluate the Currency Regime Liberalization in the Republic of
Kazakhstan
This paper presents a study on the impact of exchange rate volatility on the trade
between the partner countries employing multi-variate time series model. The models are
estimated for three major partner countries such as United States, Italy and Russia for the period
between 2000:03 and 2007:09 just after Kazakhstan entered into a new currency system.
Linear regression models it is obvious that exchange rates have significant on trade of
Kazakhstan. Income of importing countries has a crucial importance as well. Interesting to note
that volatility has positive significant for export to Russia. The other two countries export is not
affected probably because Kazakhstan on essence exports raw products, which are not easily
affected by exchange rate volatility.
Keywords: Trade, Exchange Rate Volatility, Kazakhstan
INTRODUCTION
Kazakhstan began its reform process in 1992. In many areas, such as its pension
reform, which created a pay-as-you-go system, or in the development of its banking sector,
Kazakhstan appears to be a model transition economy.
There is a difference between the criteria sets and the conclusions by the United States
and by the European Union (EU) on Kazakhstan’s market status. According to EU, Kazakhstan
improved from non-market economy to “special status” in 2000.
In March 2002, the U.S. Department of Commerce graduated Kazakhstan to market
economy status under U.S. trade law. The change in status recognized substantive market
economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to
foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of
resources.
There are criterions that must be met before a country is called a market economy.
12
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 State interference must be minor
U.S. Department of
Commerce Criteria
Wage rates are
established by the labor
market.
Disappearance of undue state control
over resources and production
decisions. Law is transparent and nondiscriminatory.
State-ownership of
resources is minimal.
European Union Criteria
Market-determined
prices
Control of resources
Accounting standards
Property Rights
Exchange Rates
Foreign Investment
International standards are followed.
There are no holdovers from planned
economy payment of depts, such as
write-offs, barter
Law is transparent and effective.
Insolvent firms are forced into
bankruptcy.
Exchange rates are not fixed.
Currency is conventible.
There is potential for
foreign investment.
Source: Sharon Eicher `Is Kazakhstan a Market Economy Yet? Getting warmer…`
William Davidson Institute Working Paper Number 673, page:5, April 2004, Almaty , Kazakhstan
Criteria set by the EU seem more restrictive than those of the USA. The former
emphasizes liberalization of all prices, not just wages. Much is made of accounting standards,
which do not appear to be emphasized by the USA. The EU underscored property rights,
whereas the USA put emphasis on opportunities for FDI. Both sets place stress upon removing
currency controls and both emphasize private use of resources.
Many transition economies also wish to join the European Union. For these countries,
there are additional requirements. Democratic institutions, including the rule of law, respect for
human rights, and protection of minorities, must be supported. The country must be willing to
support the political, economic, and monetary aims of the union.
1. THOUGHT OF THE CURRENCY REGIME LIBERALIZATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF
KAZAKHSTAN
The implementation of stability in the money markets, balanced demand for foreign
exchange, and a manageable inflation rate caused a necessity to develop new approaches to
currency regime liberalization aimed at the removal of particular restrictions imposed on foreign
exchange transactions and at the use of alternative foreign exchange transactions regulation
methods according to the demands of the times and international practices.
This thought has to be considered not as the primary stage of the exchange policy
liberalization process, but as its continuation within the framework of the Development Strategy of
Kazakhstan until 2030, since, in the process of gradual development of the foreign exchange
market and entering of new participants into it, a certain stage of liberalization has already been
passed in this domain.
The restrictions and barriers imposed earlier by the exchange legislation of the Republic
of Kazakhstan and which are still in force at present are a characteristic of the most of the
countries where markets are developing. In the conditions of globalization in the world economy
and financial operations growth capital movement liberalization is an unavoidable and necessary
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 condition for economic development of the countries who are willing to take the advantage of
more integration into the world economy.
1.1. Exchange Rate Regime of the National Currency. (Tenge)
During the introduction of the national currency, the tenge, there remained a substantial
deficit in gold and foreign exchange reserves. Fixed exchange rate regime would not resolve the
problem of supporting the tenge’s internal stability nor curb the currency depreciation rate in the
presence of fast-growing demand for foreign currency, induced to a certain degree by lack of
confidence in the tenge by households.
In order to build a liquid foreign exchange market and sustain the convertibility of the
tenge into foreign currencies, effective January 1994, 50-percent export proceeds surrender
requirement was temporarily introduced for all businesses. The new regulation did not apply to
newly formed enterprises with a stake of foreign capital. The above-mentioned rate was reduced
to 30 percent on June 10, 1995, and abolished on August 4, 1995. The reasons for that were a
decrease in the depreciation rate of the tenge relative to the US dollar, higher confidence in the
national currency, and the introduction of new financial instruments of higher returns. In this
circumstance, a decision was made to introduce the regime of managed floating aimed at further
reduction of inflation rate and dampening of expectations of depreciation.
The consequences of 1998 Russian financial crisis led to the acceleration of tenge
depreciation and notably severe exchange rate fluctuations in the segment of foreign exchange
market formed by the households. Considerable devaluation of Kazakhstan trade partners’
currencies, first of all Russian rubles, resulted in real appreciation of the tenge and unfavorable
competitive position of Kazakhstan exports. The introduction of freely floating exchange rate
regime resulted in the necessity to sustain the balance in the financial market. Thus, the NBK
reintroduced the 50-percent export proceeds surrender requirement. At the same time measures
were taken to preserve tenge assets of pension funds and tenge deposits by natural persons in
commercial banks.
All these measures contributed to the increase in foreign currency supply in the foreign
exchange market and helped to overcome the crisis, which, in combination with favorable
conditions in the world commodity markets, allowed nullifying the surrender requirement in
November of 1999.
At the same time, other measures of administrative control over foreign exchange
transactions imposed by the currency regulation legislation are still in force. The act “On Currency
Regulation” issued in 1993 determined the list of current exchange transactions which can be
effected with no restrictions.
The National Bank of Kazakhstan changed the mechanism of setting up the official
exchange rate. Starting from the June 9, 2003 the official exchange rate of Tenge versus US
dollar is the weighted average rate of Tenge versus US dollar set on the morning session of the
Kazakh Stock Exchange on the previous business day.
1.2. The Exchange Rate Market in Kazakhstan
In 2005 the situation on the exchange market was characterized by a tendency for the
tenge to weaken nominally against the U.S. dollar. It was generally consistent with the conditions
of the world exchange market, which was characterized by significant strengthening of American
currency.
The weighted average exchange rate of the tenge in 2005 was T 132.93 to the dollar. As
of the period's end the exchange market rate was T 133.77 to the dollar. Since the year's start the
14
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 tenge weakened 2.9 percent against the dollar in nominal terms. The highest devaluation rates
were observed in March and June (respectively 1.82 percent and 1.95 percent).
In second quarter of 2007 the dynamics of the tenge’s exchange rate against the U.S.
dollar was characterized by trends in differing directions. Altogether, based on results for the
quarter, the exchange rate of the tenge appreciated against the U.S. dollar by 1.2 percent—from
T 123.84 per dollar to T 122.31 per dollar.
The weighted average exchange rate of the tenge for second quarter of 2007 was T
121.38 per dollar, having strengthened by 2.8 percent by comparison with the indicator for first
quarter of 2007. During the quarter the tenge changed against the dollar within a range from T
118.79 – T 123.60 per dollar (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Dynamics of the nominal exchange rate of the tenge against the U.S. dollar
Source: Republic of Kazakhstan National Bank
There was a significant nominal appreciation of the tenge against the U.S. dollar in April
(3.0 percent), while in May the tenge depreciated (1.9 percent) and in June the tenge remained
relatively stable.
Given that volumes of transactions with Russian rubles on the exchange segment of the
domestic currency market remains insignificant, and that no transactions were carried out with the
euro at all in second Quarter of 2007, the exchange rate of the tenge against those currencies is
calculated on the basis of a cross-rate against the U.S. dollar. Correspondingly, the dynamics of
the tenge exchange rate against the euro and the Russian ruble were determined by the
dynamics of the tenge exchange rate against the U.S. dollar, the position of the single
European currency on the international financial market, and policy of the Central Bank of
Russia with respect to the exchange rate of the Russian ruble against a basket of currencies.
During the second quarter of 2007 the official tenge exchange rate against the euro and
the Russian ruble appreciated by 0.1 percent and 0.4 percent respectively (Figure 2).
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Figure 2: Dynamics of the official tenge exchange rate against the euro and the Russian
ruble
Source: Republic of Kazakhstan National Bank
During the second quarter of 2007 the situation on the internal currency market was
determined by the situation on global foreign exchange markets, the status of the country's
balance of payments, and large volumes of operations on the currency sector of the stock and
interbank markets.
Overall, the exchange rate dynamics of the tenge against the dollar on the domestic
currency market corresponded to the exchange rate dynamics of the euro against the dollar on
the world currency market. Thus, in April the euro appreciated against the U.S. dollar in nominal
terms by 2.2 percent and in May it weakened by 1.1 percent, whereas in June the exchange rate
of the euro against the U.S. dollar remained relatively stable (appreciation by 0.4 percent).
2. MODEL SPECIFICATION
Expired by the previous works exchange rates effects on trade volume of the country, it
was decided to use traditional export demand equation. However, the estimation in most of the
models used in previous studies would prefer to separately set equation for trade and its
determinants. Like McKenzie (1998) and Chowdhury (1993) long-run equilibrium equation of
trade and explanatory variables could be written as follows:
Log(REXP t ) =
α 0 + α 1 Log(RGDP t ) + α 2 Log(REER t ) + α 3 Log(RVOL t ) + u t ,
where REXP t is real export, RGDP t is a measure of real GDP, REER t is the real bilateral
exchange rates between Kazakhstan and its main trade partners in question, and RVOL t is real
exchange rate volatility determinant. If it is concerns the magnitudes of the coefficients, then real
GDP have a positive effect as income increase in importing country should foster the demand for
goods and leads to export increase of the Kazakhstan. In respect to the real exchange rate, in
case of exchange rate depreciation (an increase in REER t ) export may increase as well due to
relative price changes. However, the last variable effect of the right-hand side of the equation
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 RVOL t has uncertainty, according to the literature. Therefore, it is expected
α1
and
α 2 >0, α 3 <
or > 0 (Hasan Vergil, 2001).
2.1. Data
The source of quarterly data for Kazakhstan’s export to main trade partners such as
United States, Italy and Russia used, is Kazakhstan National Banks’ data for periods between:
2000:03 and 2007:09. After achieving its independence Kazakhstan mainly kept the course of
stabilization and adjustable peg regime was introduced under auspices of IMF policy, in which the
currency of Kazakhstan – tenge, was frequently. Although, Kazakhstan started implementing
financial liberalization policy in 2002, it adopted flexible exchange rates regime after exchange
rate crisis in Kazakhstan in 1999. Therefore, in order to avoid data specification problem it was
decided to investigate the period after 1999. Subsequently, quarterly nominal exports of
Kazakhstan were converted into real terms using United States consumer price index, which
were
retrieved
from
Federal
Reserve
Bank
of
St.
Louis–FRED
(http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/categories/9). Thus, the nominal exports of Kazakhstan were
deflated by CPI of United States.
According to the theory, one of the crucial explanatory variables of export is importing
countries income level. Obviously, quarterly GDP data exists for countries in question. Therefore,
being aware that some countries data would be missing, it was appropriate to employ the index of
industrial production. The same approach was followed by McKenzie and Brooks (1979) and
Doroodian (1999). Index of industrial industrialization published by OECD, is used as a proxy for
GDP.
The other determinant of export is bilateral exchange rates of trading partners and
Kazakhstan, which defines the competitiveness of the country in question. Real exchange rates
data for each country were obtained from National Bank of Kazakhstan.
Following Kyriacos Aristotelous (2001) exchange rates volatility measurement was
obtained by moving standard deviation of the growth of the real exchange rates in order to
account for volatility in different periods. The order of moving average is set equal to 4 like
Aristotelous did.
2.2. Emprical Results
In this section we present export equation for Kazakhstan. In order to show linear
relationship between right and left-hand side variables linear regression model was employed.
Three main trade partners, Italy, United States and Russia were considered in our investigation.
Table1. Linear Regression Model Results, Dependent Variable is Log of Real Exports
LIIP (proxy
variable for
Real GDP)
-7.692609
-0.473804
The United
(-1.686515) (-0.910230)
States
36.10430*** -6.960375***
Italy
(7.832724) (-8.103161)
-18.76983
5.202195***
Russia
(-1.739914)
(3.989896)
*** - signifcant at 1% level
** - signifcant at 5% level
t-statistics in paranthesis
C
LREER
LVOL
2.736142***
(5.606486)
-0.212770
(-0.315214)
-0.715831
(-0.604350)
0.129827
(1.676657)
0.049186
(0.211995)
0.715971
*** (2.326289)
R-squared
0.938251
0.775938
0.802348
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 R-squared results are really braving for research reasons, which shows that variables in
question are really have crucial effect on exports of Kazakhstan. In addition, it is interesting to
notice that real exchange rate coefficients are significant for United States and Russia. On the
other hand, only significant coefficient in regression for Italy is proxy for income variable. Besides,
negative signs for real exchange rates and real GDP proxy violate the theory we have states
earlier. According to the F-test these coefficients for all equations show joint significance.
Moreover due to multicollinearity the effect of real exchange rate is captured by other variables in
the model. As an example, there is high correlation between LREER and LVOL variables for
Russia export model: Corr(LREER;LVOL) = 0,85. Summarizing for linear regression models it is
obvious that exchange rates have significant on trade of Kazakhstan. Income of importing
countries has a crucial importance as well. Interesting to note that volatility has positive significant
for export to Russia. The other two countries export is not affected probably because Kazakhstan
on essence exports raw products, which are not easily affected by exchange rate volatility.
2.3.Cointegration Analysis
In order to implement cointegration analysis, the order of series should be determined. For
this purpose the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test was made. Tables 2 and 3 show
the details of these test results. Before estimating the parameters of equation (1), the data
generating process for each variable is considered. The Augmented Dickey-Fuller test results
indicate that these series are integrated at order one and the are difference stationary, that is I(1)
model. This conclusion is not altered when suitable alternative lag intervals are considered. The
lag length, which is equal to 2 for the series in question, was determined by Akaike Information
Criteria (AIC) and Schwartz Information Criteria (SIC). And the symbol Δ denotes the first
difference.
Table 2. Augmeneted Dickey-Fuller Unit Root Test Results, with trend
United States
Italy
Russia
-0.984755
-0.992536
-0.998763
LREXP
-2.775715
-3.274243**
-4.476092***
LREER
-2.607997
-1.765003
-3.181611**
LIIP
-1.837558
-1.621633
-1.502906
LVOL
Δ LREXP
Δ LREER
Δ LIIP
Δ LVOL
-3.811380**
-3.798012**
-3.996310**
-3.460126**
-2.719439*
-4.074761***
-3.760985**
-2.951162*
-7.660571***
-3.127182**
-4.058885***
-3.660381**
*denotes significance at 10% level, ** - 5% level, *** - 1% level.
Table 3. Augmeneted Dickey-Fuller Unit Root Test Results, without trend
United States
Italy
Russia
1.642854
1.654896
1.669875
LREXP
-2.076690
-3.830392**
-0.973443
LREER
-1.448936
-0.540769
-0.432128
LIIP
-1.893177
-2.034261
-1.978961
LVOL
Δ LREXP
Δ LREER
Δ LIIP
Δ LVOL
-2.642178
-2.698630
-2.701236
-2.321372
-2.355049
-4.233738*
-3.829133**
-2.996964
-7.396913*
-2.697795
-3.589778**
-3.121094**
*denotes significance at 10% level, ** - 5% level, *** - 1% level.
18
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Table 4. Johansen Cointegration Test Results (Log Likelihood Ratio)
Country
r=0
r≤1
r≤2
r=1
r=2
r=3
83.50017
44.78647
10.81101
United States
CV 5%
47.21
29.68
15.41
103.4242
55.08371
20.72180
Italy
CV 5%
47.21
29.68
15.41
47.31051
24.12255
12.07536
Russia
CV 5%
47.21
29.68
15.41
r≤3
r=4
3.424111
3.76
5.473826
3.76
2.908280
3.76
Table 5. Johansen Cointegration Test
Country
Normalized Cointegrating Coefficients
United States
Italy
Russia
Ln (REXP) = 0.012 + 2.30 Ln(IIP) + 5.15 Ln (REER) + 0.12 Ln (VOL)
(4,20)
(6,35)
(1,80)
Ln (REXP) = -38.54-9.12 Ln(IIP) + 1.54 Ln (REER) - 0.82 Ln (VOL)
(-18,09)
(3,58)
(-4,58)
Ln (REXP) = 0.012 - 0.11 Ln(IIP) + 6.84 Ln (REER) + 0.27 Ln (VOL)
(-0,06)
(3,986)
(1,15)
3. Conclusion
This paper presents a study on the impact of exchange rate volatility on the trade
between the partner countries employing multi-variate time series model. The models are
estimated for three major partner countries such as United States, Italy and Russia for the period
between 2000:03 and 2007:09 just after Kazakhstan entered into a new currency system.
Our results suggest that real exports for The United States are significantly reflected by
real exchange rates. Although for the rest two countries the sign contradicts the theory the
coefficient for real exchange rate are not significant. As for the volatility, it does not have an
impact on trade seemingly as a result of raw material exports from Kazakhstan.
Summarizing for linear regression models it is obvious that exchange rates have
significant on trade of Kazakhstan. Income of importing countries has a crucial importance as
well. Interesting to note that volatility has positive significant for export to Russia. The other two
countries export is not affected probably because Kazakhstan on essence exports raw products,
which are not easily affected by exchange rate volatility.
REFERENCES
1. Sharon Eicher `Is Kazakhstan a Market Economy Yet? Getting warmer…` William
Davidson Institute Working Paper Number 673, April 2004, Almaty , Kazakhstan
2. Chowdhury A.R. (1993) `Does Exchange Rate Volatility Depress Trade Flows? Evidence
From Error-Correction Models.` Review of Ecoomics and Statistics 75 : 700-708
3. European Union. 2001. The EU's relations with Kazakhstan.
4. Annual Report of the National Bank of The Republic of Kazakhstan for 2005,
http://www.nationalbank.kz/index.
5. http://globaledge.msu.edu/countryInsights/statistics.asp?countryID=201&regionID=3 (12
November 2007)
6. http://www.imf.org/external/country/index.htm ( 10 January 2008)
7. http://www.worldbank.org/kz ( 10 April 2008)
8. Yılmaz Mesut, “International Economics and Kazkhstan Economy” , Coursework
Complied, Published by Suleyman Demirel University, 2008, Almaty, Kazakistan
19
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 9. Duyar, Metin, “Turkish Model and Cooperation Possibilities for Creating Added Value in
Kazakh Gold Production ”, Journal of Suleyman Demirel University, No:4, 2007, AlmatyKazakhstan
10. Mesut Yılmaz, “External Debt and Financial Vulnerability – An Application of Balance
Sheet Analysis Approach in Case of Kazakhstan”, An International Scientific Conference,
Abay National Pedagogical University, April 28-30, 2008, Almaty-Kazakhstan
11. For Data, you can check from our web page: http://www.mmyilmaz.com.
20
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE ON TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
Dr. Tara Singh,
Reader, Department of Psychology, Barkatullah University,
Hoshangabad Road, Bhopal-462026 (MP) India
E-mail: tara_singh@hotmail.com
Prof. Dr. Vijay Athavale,
Principal, Jind Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Jind, Pin: 126102 Haryana, India
Email: vijay.athavale@gmail.com
ABSTRACT The changing context of global competition, cultural diversity, new technologies and
management processes requires today’s technical and vocational education institutions produce
workers equipped with critical thinking, problem solving and communication skills, and advanced
level of job skills. This requires a new look at prevailing theoretical and conceptual framework of
learning, technologies and instructional model of transmitting to students a discrete and wellestablished set of skills and knowledge. Constructivism, a learning theory based on recent
cognitive science research, suggests a way to restructure the learning environment that will make
vocational and technical education programmes most viable and effective. In view of the
shortcomings of the underlying theories of vocational and technical education (e.g.,
behaviourism), this paper explores whether and how constructivist theory of teaching and
learning can be used in vocational and technical education. Finally, it has been argued that
constructivism will be a better solution than behaviourism to serve as the learning theory
foundation for vocational and technical education curriculum and pedagogy.
Keywords: Behaviourism, Constructivism, Cognitive perspective, Social constructivism,
Peer collaboration, Contextual learning, Situated cognition, Distributed cognition
1. INTRODUCTION
In the past, three learning theory metaphors have dominated education, as a whole:
learning as the acquisition of stimulus-response pairs (behaviourism), learning as the processing
of information (information processing), and learning as the construction of knowledge
(constructivism) (Mayer, 1992). These changes in explanatory metaphors have resulted from, and
have allowed for, new insights concerning the nature of learning and knowledge in general
education as well as technical and vocational education. Although scholars have called for a new
look at theoretical and conceptual frameworks in vocational and technical education (e.g., Doty &
Weissman, 1984; Lynch, 1997), with the rapid development in occupational, educational, and
computer technologies, the old instructional model of transmitting to students a discrete and wellestablished set of skills and knowledge must be called into question. Within this uncertain
environment of change, the student’s ability to construct viable knowledge and to adapt is
paramount.
2. DOMINANCE OF BEHAVIOURIST POSITION
The unifying theory underlying vocational and technical education as envisioned by David
Snedden and effectuated by Charles Prosser, was the so called ‘social efficiency doctrine’
21
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 (Camp, 1983). This theory was based on the assumption that only an efficient society could
create a positive environment in which the individual could prosper and find satisfaction.
Vocational and technical education, as envisioned by Snedden and Prosser, made up one of the
bulwarks of social efficiency, in that the preparation of a well-trained, compliant workforce was a
sin qua non of an efficient society (Wirth, 1972). Six fundamental theories formed the basis for
social efficiency especially in the context of vocational, career and technical education during
early 20th century (Camp, 1983). These were: socioeconomic stratification, probable destiny,
psychometrics, social control, pedagogy, and behaviourism.
However, as an emerging learning theory of the early 20th century, behaviourism
provided the final foundation for social efficiency. Behaviourists (e.g., Thorndike, 1932) contended
that learning consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the
application of rewards (Wirth, 1972). This emphasis on stimulus-response pairing reflected
behaviourism’s positivistic philosophical base. That is, an analysis of the human condition that
relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs.
Further, behaviourists believed that most human behaviour could be understood as basic
reflexive learning mechanisms or “laws” that operate on one’s experience with the environment.
It was believed that psychometrics and sociology would allow schools to guide students
into their ideal educational tracks based on their probable destinies (Wirth, 1972). Behavioural
science provided the mechanism and pedagogical science provided the processes by which the
schools would teach students the right work and moral habits. Those habits would lead to a
voluntary compliance with social norms in compliance with social control theory. That compliance,
in turn, meant that members of all social classes would benefit from a healthier society and
economy and, eventually, a more humane workplace. By providing a scientifically based
mechanism for teaching and learning, the science of behaviourism is, thus, seen as a lynchpin of
the educational system’s contribution to social efficiency. The social efficiency theory was most
prevalent in the first half of 20th century when the education (both vocational and technical) was
being designed and put into place in America under the name of vocational education.
However, relevance of this theory seems to have little to do with the realities of early 21st
century vocational and technical education, as Dobbins (1999) argued, behaviourism remains the
learning theory undergirding current vocational and technical education thinking. The links
between behavioural learning theory and the competency-based approach to programmatic
decision-making and curriculum structuring is still pervasive in career and technical education
(Finch & Crunkilton, 1999). For many years, a competency-based approach to vocational and
technical education has been the dominant curriculum model for the profession and remains so
today (Finch & Crunkilton, 1999). That dominance is still reflected in instructional systems in
which skills are “checked off” when accomplished, and assumed to be permanently held by the
student thereafter. Thus, behaviourism is fundamental to the way we do business in vocational
and technical education; yet, as the state of knowledge in education and psychology advances, it
is incumbent on scholars to reexamine all aspects of our profession’s theoretical foundations.
According to Dobbins (1999), the use of performance objectives to provide structure for
lesson plans, criterion-referenced measures to measure task completion (Newcomb, McCracken,
& Warmbrod, 1993), and reliance on incumbent worker task lists for the primary source of
curriculum (Finch & Crunkilton, 1999), derive directly from behavioural learning theory. Following
that logic, it seems clear that a curriculum designed to provide specific, pre-determined skills
demonstrated to industry standards does not represent knowledge constructed internally by the
student, but rather knowledge and skills externally imposed on the student. Thus, the behaviourist
(Prosser) position has predominated over the pragmatic/ constructivist (Dewey) position in
vocational and technical education for most of this century (Lynch, 1997). Johnson and Thomas
(1994) note that vocational and technical education researchers have shown little interest in
cognitive science-based research, although instructional strategies supported by such research
include those that have been used by technology education for years.
22
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Thus, the behaviourism was one of the primary theoretical foundations of the social
efficiency doctrine. Indeed, today, behaviourism remains the primary basis in learning theory for
both the curriculum and pedagogy of vocational and technical education as practiced in
classroom and laboratory (Dobbins, 1999). Although scholars have called for a new look at
theoretical and conceptual frameworks in vocational and technical education (e.g., Doty &
Weissman, 1984; Lynch, 1997), with the rapid development in occupational, educational, and
computer technologies, the old instructional model of transmitting to students a discrete and wellestablished set of skills and knowledge must be called into question. Within this uncertain
environment of change, the student’s ability to construct viable knowledge and to adapt is
paramount.
3. INFORMATION PROCESSING AND COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
As researchers began to see that complex learning was difficult, if not impossible, to
explain using behaviourist approach and as the computer began to enter the academic
consciousness; information-processing theory emerged to explain how mental structures affect
behaviour. With increased interest in human information processing in complex cognitive activity,
the cognitive perspective assumed prominence. Bruner (1990) argues that the cognitive
revolution was meant to do more than simply be an improvement in behaviourism; it was also
meant to promote a psychology that focused on “meaning making.” To explain meaning making,
cognitive psychologists introduced cognitive structures (such as schemata and heuristics) as the
representations of knowledge in memory. These cognitive structures are assumed to underlie
such phenomena as problem solving and transfer ability.
Over recent decades, educators have moved to embrace information processing and
constructivism. A number of theorists in vocational and technical education have advocated
similar change in the underlying theoretical framework of this profession (e.g., Hill, 1994;
Gregson, 1997). Grubb (1997) long an advocate of curriculum integration as a mechanism for
better serving students by providing context for all learning, lamented the slow progress in
vocational and technical education toward real reform. Gregson (1997) made an impassioned
plea for vocational and technical educators to move toward critical pedagogy, which is anchored
in constructivist philosophy. He argued that such a reorientation might serve as a means of
pursuing Dewey’s (1916) much earlier vision that education through occupations could be a
liberalizing influence on education as opposed to a tool of the status quo. Moore (1999) even
attempted to formulate a comprehensive theory of work-based learning. Then, after several years
of productive research into the components of memory and cognition, it became apparent that
context and culture influenced the representation of these components; and constructivism
emerged to explain personal meaning and the nature of reality and representations (Doolittle &
Camp, 1999). Today, virtually all cognitive science theories entail some form of constructivism to
the extent that cognitive structures are typically viewed as individually constructed in the process
of interpreting experiences in particular contexts.
4. RECENT ORIENTATION: CONSTRUCTIVISM
A number of factors, many of which were actually informed by cognitive perspectives on teaching and learning (Breur, 1994), have motivated interest in constructivism. Recent advances in cognitive science as well as in the science of teaching and learning indicate that constructivism provides a clear and valid theoretical framework for vocational, career and technical education. It provides a framework that coherently organizes and synthesizes knowledge (e.g., psychological, technical, vocational), and serves to describe, explain, and predict thought and behaviour within career, vocational and technical education. Recent educational reform efforts have all embraced constructivist principles within their theoretical frameworks. In addition, recent research concerning vocational and technical education has discussed the usefulness of constructivist principles 23
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 without specifically positioning those principles within the framework of a construcvist perspective (see Cash, Behrmann, Stadt, & Daniels, 1998; Herrick, 1996; Roegge, Wentling, & Bragg, 1998). As cognitive research clarified the demands of expert reasoning and problem solving, interest emerged in distributing the cognitive work (Bruer, 1994). Researchers hypothesized that by drawing upon a larger collective memory and multiple ways in which knowledge could be structured among individuals working together, groups could attain more success than individuals working alone. 4.1 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF LEARNING
The concept that learners construct their own knowledge from experience is termed constructivism (Fosnot, 1996). Constructivism is not a unitary theoretical position; rather, it is frequently described as a continuum. Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories: Cognitive constructivism (e.g., Anderson, 1993), social constructivism (e.g., Cobb, 1994; Vygotsky, 1978), and radical constructivism (e.g., Piaget, 1973; von Glasersfeld, 1995). Cognitive constructivists emphasize accurate mental constructions of reality. Radical constructivists emphasize the construction of a coherent experiential reality. Social constructivists emphasize the construction of an agreed‐upon, socially constructed reality. Constructivism as a theory of learning has roots in both philosophy and psychology. The essential core of constructivism is that learners actively construct their own knowledge and meaning from their experiences (Fosnot, 1996; Steffe & Gale, 1995). This core has roots that extend back through many years and many philosophers, including Dewey (1938), Hegel (1807/1949), Kant (1781/1946), and Vico (1725/1968). Philosophically, this essence relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, the concept that while reality may exist separate from experience, it can only be known through experience, resulting in a personally unique reality. The essential epistemological tenets of constructivism are: (1) Knowledge is not passively accumulated, but rather, is the result of active cognizing by the individual. (2) Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individual’s behaviour more viable given a particular environment. (3) Cognition organizes and makes sense of one’s experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality. (4) Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language‐based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997; Larochelle, Bendnarz, & Garrison, 1998; Gergen, 1995). Research on postmodern constructivist perspective on teaching and learning (cf. Prawat, 1996) rejects the view that the locus of knowledge is in the individual. Rather, learning and understanding are regarded as inherently social; and cultural activities and tools (ranging from symbol system to artifacts of language) are regarded as integral to conceptual development. The theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world. Instead of absorbing or passively receiving objective knowledge that is “out there,” learners actively construct knowledge by integrating new information and experiences into what they have previously come to understand, revising and reinterpreting old knowledge in order to reconcile it with the new (Billett, 1996). The cognitive structures that learners build include procedural knowledge (how: techniques, skills, and abilities) and re‐positional knowledge (that: facts, concepts, propositions). Often neglected are dispositions, that is, attitudes, values, and interests that help learners decide: Is it worth doing? Knowing how and that is not sufficient without the disposition to “do.” 24
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Other key features of knowledge construction are functional context, social context, and usefulness. The process works most effectively when it is embedded in a context in which new knowledge and skills will be used. Research on thinking and learning reinforces the idea that people learn through interaction with others (Johnson & Thomas, 1994). Although learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation, it takes place within the social context. In addition, learning must be useful to the learner; intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand, to construct meaning (Billett, 1996). Thus constructivism acknowledges the learner’s active role in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of experience (both individual and social) in this knowledge creation process, and the realization that the created knowledge will vary in its degree of validity as an accurate representation of reality. 5. CONSTRUCTIVISM IN TECHNICAL/VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
According to Parnell (1996), the philosophical position of academic education has been “learning to know is most important; application can come later”; of vocational education: “learning to do is most important; knowledge will somehow seep into the process” (p. 9). The irony for vocational and technical education is that studies of cognitive development in vocations are leading reforms of general education, but the full import of the theoretical advances is not being applied in vocational and technical education itself (Stevenson, 1994). 5.1 CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF PIAGET Piagetian theory (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) stands in sharp contrast to behaviourism and information processing accounts of cognition. Piagetian theory assumes that social interaction leads to higher levels of reasoning and learning. This assumption is best explained in terms of the socio‐cognitive conflict derived principally from the work of Piaget and his disciples, and the notion of disequilibration (See Piaget, 1985 for details). Piaget further suggested that the social exchanges between children were more likely to lead to cognitive development than exchanges between children and adults. Neo‐Piagetian theory leads not only to an emphasis on environments, which support discovery and construction but also to a stress on the importance of collaboration in learning. Although, according to theory, tutors may have little role to play in promoting development, problem‐
solving interactions between peers may be highly significant. Thus, instruction plays very minor role in Piagetian thinking, where the emphasis lies on the active, self‐constructive nature of learning. 5.2 VYGOTSKY AND THE “SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM”
The role of social processes as a mechanism for learning is usually identified with Vygotsky (Vygotsky,, 1978, p. 30 cited in Wertsch & Bivens, 1992). Mental functioning of the individual is not simply derived from social interaction; rather, the specific structures and processes revealed by individuals can be traced to their interactions with others. Wertsch (1991) has proposed three major themes in Vygotsky’s writings that elucidate the nature of this interdependence between individual and social processes in learning and development. The first theme is that individual development, including higher mental functioning, has its 25
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 origins in social sources. This theme is best represented in Vygotsky’s “genetic law of development” (Valsinar, 1987, p. 67). As learners participate in a broad range of joint activities and internalize the effects of working together, they acquire new strategies and knowledge of the world and culture. In contrast with the prevailing views of his time, in which learning was regarded as an external process and development an internal process, Vygotsky was concerned with the unity and interdependence of learning and development. For example, he was critical of Piaget’s theory in which “maturation is viewed as a precondition of learning but never the result of it” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 80). In contrast, Vygotsky proposed that (p. 90): Learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and with his peers. Where Piagetian theory emphasizes the role of self‐discovery and peer collaboration, Vygotskian theory (Wertsch, 1985) stresses the role of interaction between novices and experts. The commonplace observation that novices can often perform tasks with help when they cannot handle them alone is of central importance in the theory. The “gap” between assisted and unassisted performance, the “zone of proximal development” or “region to sensitivity to instruction” (Wood, Wood, & Middleton, 1978) is where important learning takes place. What happens in such interactions is not simply the acquisition of new task knowledge and skills, but the development of general competence in “self‐regulation” as the process of instruction itself becomes “internalized.” Thus, the learner acquires expertise in learning how to learn by virtue of the ways in which others assist in learning. They become, so to speak, their own teachers as they internalize the process of being instructed by another. By a similar argument, trying to teach someone how to perform a task that one already understands can facilitate development in the teacher. By finding out what does and does not work in regulating other people’s learning, a tutor discovers how to regulate their own learning more effectively. Put more dramatically, the teacher may discover the strengths and weaknesses of human cognition by reflecting on their successes and failures in attempts to help others. The theory thus leads to a strong emphasis on peer tutoring in development where more knowledgeable members of a learning community both teach and learn by helping the less knowledgeable. A number of new approaches to instruction have grown up around these ideas such as scaffolding (providing physical aids and supporting materials), apprenticeship, and guided instruction. 6. TEACHING AND LEARNING IN TECHNICAL/VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
It is argued that the role of technical and vocational education should be supporting constructivist learning. Research confirms that the “focus of teaching and learning should be on the individual’s active construction of knowledge” (Stevenson, 1994, p. 29). The essential role of vocational education is “to facilitate construction of knowledge through experiential, contextual, and social methods in real‐world environments” (Lynch, 1997, p. 27). Because the focus is on the learner, technical and vocational education should be conceptualized as a learning process rather than a teaching process (Stevenson, 1994). 6.1 ROLE OF THE TEACHER
In view of the constructivist perspective, the role of vocational and technical education teachers is not to set tasks, but to organize experiences that allow learners to 26
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 develop their own knowledge and understanding. Using the method of cognitive apprenticeship, the teacher is a coach who provides guidance that gradually decreases, as learners become more proficient and who models, mediates, diagnoses, and scaffolds. Vocational and technical education teachers should facilitate learning by encouraging active inquiry, guiding learners to question their tacit assumptions, and coaching them in the knowledge construction process. This contrasts with the behaviourist approach that has dominated education, in which the teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners’ passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion. A constructivist vocational and technical education teacher should be more interested in uncovering meanings than in covering prescribed material. According to the constructivist theory, learning is most effective when situated in a context in which new knowledge and skills will be used and individuals construct meaning for themselves but within the context of interaction with others. Experts facilitate learning by modeling problem‐solving strategies, guiding learners in approximating the strategies while learners articulate their thought processes. Experts coach learners with appropriate scaffolds or aids, gradually decreasing assistance as learners internalize the process and construct their own knowledge and understanding (Kerka, 1997). Thus, the role of learner in vocational and technical education is of guide, adviser, coach, motivator, facilitator, and role model within a contextual setting (Galbraith & Cohen, 1995) Functioning as experts, technical and vocational teachers and instructors provide authentic, experiential learning opportunities as well as an intense interpersonal relationship through which social learning takes place. The role of vocational and technical teachers should be that of birds guiding their young in leaving the nest; they support without rescuing, provide scaffolding (e.g., in a problem situation, asking “What do think you should do next?”), and have the courage to let learners fail (Bell, 1997). Experience is transferred into expertise through trial and error, observing an experienced person, and guided learning. The guided learning is the characteristics of most effective teaching in vocational and technical education. With trust as the foundation of the relationship, teachers give learners a safe place to try out ideas, skills, and roles with minimal risk. Such experiments are more authentic when linked with real‐world activities such as temporary work assignments or short‐term projects. The knowledge acquired is thus constantly reinterpreted and developed through practice (Clemnson & Bradford, 1996). Although learning is a matter of individual interpretation of experiences, it takes place within the social context (Kerka, 1997). Therefore, the interpersonal relationship of teachers and learners is recognized as essential (Galbraith & Cohen, 1995). Thus, the idea of learning as a transaction i.e., an interactive and evolving process between teachers and their learners is considered a fundamental component of vocational and technical education. 6.2 THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
The constructivist approach to teaching and learning requires that teachers “provide a learning environment where students search for meaning, appreciate uncertainty, and inquire responsible” (Brooks & Brooks, 1993, p. v). Technical and vocational teachers must begin to make a difference in how students learn by encouraging student‐to‐student interaction, initiating lessons that foster cooperative learning, and providing opportunities for students to be exposed to interdisciplinary curriculum. The thematic approach to learning and implement practices that encourage students to think and rethink, demonstrate, and exhibit should be abandoned (Brooks & Brooks, 1993). 27
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Under constructivism, teachers follow practices that lead students to engage in higher‐
order thinking and provide opportunities for students to process information through various avenues of expression‐‐written, oral, building, drawing, etc. Also, the learning environment should reproduce the key aspects of communities of practice: authentic activities sequenced in complexity, multiple experiences and examples of knowledge application, access to experts, and a social context in which learners collaborate on knowledge construction. 6.3 CONTEXTUAL LEARNING
Contextual learning, rooted in the constructivist approach, assumes that individuals learn by constructing meaning through interacting with and interpreting their environments (Brown, 1998). The concept of situated learning, that “knowledge is created and made meaningful by the context in which it is acquired” (Farmer, Buckmaster, & LeGrand, 1992, p. 46), is embedded in constructivism. The meaning of what individuals learn is coupled with their life experiences and contexts; it is constructed by the learners, not by the teachers; and learning is anchored in the context of real‐life situations and problems (Brown, 1998; Dirkx, Amey, & Haston, 1999). Weinbaum and Rogers (1995) describe contextual learning as a process by which knowledge is socially shared, thinking is shaped by engagement with tools, learning is engaged with objects and events, and learning is situation specific. The emphasis is on application of knowledge and skills in the context of real‐life experiences, problems, and events (Brown, 1998). Learning occurs as students attempt to make sense of the situations with which they are presented and develop strategies for confronting barriers typically encountered in the workplace to arrive at a course of action that they can test for viability. Teamwork, negotiation, leadership, and conflict resolution are encouraged. Relating instructional content to the specific contexts of learners’ lives and interests increases motivation to learn (Dirkx & Prenger, 1997). By integrating academic content with situations or issues that are meaningful to students, instructors can help students acquire skills more rapidly than through approaches that focus only on subjects. The contextual learning incorporates recent research in cognitive science and recognizes that learning is a complex process that involves much more than behaviourist approaches emphasizing drill and practice. According to Clifford and Wilson (2000), the contextual learning, based on constructivist learning theory as well as theories of cognition and learning (i) emphasizes problem solving, (ii) recognizes that teaching and learning need to occur in multiple contexts, (iii) assists students in learning how to monitor their learning so that they can become self‐regulated learners and, (iv) anchors teaching in the diverse life context of students, (v) encourages students to learn from each other, and (vi) employs authentic assessment. Current perspectives on what it means for learning to be contextualized include situated cognition, social cognition, and distributed cognition. (i)The Situated Cognition. This approach emphasizes that a learner actively constructs an internal representation of knowledge by interacting with the material to be learned. In situated learning students actively construct their own knowledge through interactive projects with classmates, modeling of expert behaviour, and building their new knowledge by modifying their current knowledge. This is the basis for both situated cognition (Streibel, 1991) and problem‐based learning (Savery & Duffy, 1995). Teachers act as coaches, scaffolding student learning and modeling expert behaviour, providing appropriate feedback, and challenging students conceptions and misconceptions. This is similar to the Cognitive Flexibility and the Hypermedia Design Mode. 28
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Both the physical and social contexts in which an activity takes place are an integral part of the learning that occurs within these contexts. A relationship exists between the knowledge in the mind of an individual and the situations in which it is used. Theories of situated cognition assume that knowledge is inseparable from the contexts and activities within which it develops. Situated learning results from undertaking authentic activities guided by expert practitioners situated in a culture of practice (Billett, 1994a). A constructivist model for helping novices to acquire expertise is cognitive apprenticeship in which experts model the strategies and activities needed to solve problems, and learners approximate doing the activity while articulating their thought processes. Experts coach learners with appropriate scaffolds (physical aids and supporting materials), gradually decreasing assistance as through continued practice, to enable learners internalize the process by constructing their own knowledge base and understanding (Farmer, Buckmaster, & LeGrand, 1992). Thus what one learns is an integral part of the physical and social context within which learning takes place. The fact that learning does not generalize is not to be attributed to some weakness or failure on the part of the learner. Rather, what may seem to be the same task in two different social contexts is not the same. The learning situation is part of the fabric of the task. (ii) Social Cognition. Learning is more than just the individual construction of knowledge. Interactions with others in learners’ social environments are major factors influencing what is learned and how the learning takes place. Over time, individuals participate in a number of different social communities (known as discourse communities) that provides the cognitive tools (i.e., ideas, theories, and concepts) for them to make sense of their experiences. (iii)Distributed cognition. Related to both the situated and social nature of cognition is the idea that it is also distributed. Individuals often engage in collaborative learning activities and draw on resources beyond themselves in their learning. Researchers, therefore, have suggested that cognition is also an activity “that is distributed or ‘stretched’ over the individual, other persons, and symbolic and physical environment” (Borko & Putnam, 1998, p. 41). 6.4 WORKPLACE LEARNING
Research on how people learn in the workplace demonstrates that what is taking place is constructivist, situated learning, often through cognitive apprenticeship. Studies of practitioners in several professions (Farmer, Buckmaster, & LeGrand, 1992) reveal that what helped them most in learning to deal with ill‐defined, complex, or risky situations is having someone ‘model’ how to understand and deal with the situation and guide their attempts to do so. Billett (1993, 1994b) conducted several studies of coal miners and workers in other industries, concluding that, in the informal learning setting of the workplace, effective learning resulted from learners’ engagement in authentic activities, guided by experts and interacting with other learners. Although, construction of understanding was unique to each individual, it was shaped by the workplace culture of practice. These workers valued direct instruction only for information they were unlikely to learn without it being made explicit (so‐called opaque knowledge). However, the quality of that instruction was important: they wanted to help them understand why things had to be done and they wanted to be at their level, not “talking down to them” (Billett, 1994b). Thus, 29
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 activity is a key factor in knowledge construction (Billett, 1994b), and participation in everyday work activities “forces” learners to access higher‐order procedural and prepositional knowledge. Repeated experience adds to their index of knowledge, and active engagement in routine problem solving reinforces learning. In the constructivist view, reinforcement is the internal satisfaction that results from making sense of new stimuli (adapting them to existing knowledge structures), in contrast to the behavioural approach of reinforcement from external sources. According to Billett (1996), as a learning environment the workplace has a number of strengths (Billett, 1996) which include: (i) authentic, goal‐directed activities, (ii) access to guidance‐‐both close assistance from experts and “distant” observing and listening to other workers and the physical environment, (iii) everyday engagement in problem solving, which leads to indexing, and (iv) intrinsic reinforcement. However, there are also limitations to workplace setting (Billett, 1996), which are characterized in terms of the construction of inappropriate knowledge (e.g., racist or sexist attitudes, unsafe work practices), lack of sufficient or more challenging authentic activities, and reluctance of experts to participate or restrictions on their assistance. 7. CONCLUSION In conclusion, it can be said that educators and trainers in technical education must endeavour to root or anchor their instruction in more authentic tasks (Sherwood, 1992). Instruction should not proceed by teaching abstract operations or disembodied skills in a context, which differs from those to which they are intended to find application. Rather it must work within the situations, which form an integral part of the actions to be learned. The novice learner is embedded in the social practices and activities, which constitute the competencies to be acquired. They are inducted into these practices and become expert by virtue of the part they come to play in them, as happens in such learning at home, on the streets, and in cultures which do not school their children. Such calls for relevance in education are not new, of course (Bruner, 1971). What is new, perhaps, is the claim for an essential discontinuity between what one may learn as a mathematician, say, and what one does in other social contexts which seem to the naïve theorist/educator to implicate the same competencies. In this volatile contemporary world, the goal of constructivist teaching in vocational and technical education should be to develop self‐directed yet interdependent learners who can access and use a wide range of cognitive structures in order to transfer learning to contexts they have yet to encounter. 8. REFERENCES
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 РОЛЬ И МЕСТО НОМАДИЗМА В ЕВРАЗИЙСКОМ ПРОСТРАНСТВЕ
Аширалиев Дж.А.
к.ф.н., доцент, КГУСТА
В современной научной и периодической литературе существует много
разрозненной
наличной
информации
о
номадической
культуре,
требующая
систематизации и философского анализа. Понятие номады в переводе с латинского
означает кочевники, а номадизм – как срез общественного производства, форма
существования, образ жизни человека и его мыследвижения. Содержание данных понятий
в эволюционном процессе человечества было обусловлено природно-климатическими
условиями существования, а так же зависело от субъективных подходов и идеологических
стереотипов. Роль и место номадизма и его воздействия на естественноисторической
процесс оказалась малоизученными и вообще неразработанными.
В настоящее время исследование значения евразийской кочевой культуры в
человеческой истории имеет не только теоретическое, но и практическое значение.
Необходимость и актуальность изучения этих вопросов во многом зависит от следующих
объективных процессов.
- глобализация и информационные технологии, с одной стороны, закономерно
привели к распаду тоталитарной системы в СССР и образованию новых независимых
государств предполагавших нарушение существовавшего равновесия в человеческой
цивилизации в пользу США и западноевропейских стран. Долгое противостояние и
напряженное состояние дилеммы Восток-Запад (СССР-США) объективно означало не
только неосознанное наступление западноевропейских ценностей и стереотипов, в
условиях краха социалистических идей и критериев, но и потеря пассионарных сил
победившей
противоположностью. В соответствии с законом «действие- рождает
противодействие» победа западных стран и США продлилась недолго и современный мир
характеризуется пробуждением Востока и Азии в лице Японии, Китая, Индии и т.д.,
которые закономерно предполагают определенные глобальные изменения, также
реализующиеся социально-политическими последствиями в человеческой цивилизации. С
другой стороны, наступивший XXI век уже заявляет о себе процессами потери своего
лидирующего положения США и западноевропейскими странами по всем позициям, т.е.
экономике, социально- политическим аспектам, духовности и нравственности. Об этом
свидетельствует то, что китайские «дешевые» товары (дешево купили) проникают в США и
Западную Европу и около четвертой части всех крупных мировых экономических операций
производится не в Нью-Йорке, или Лондоне, а в Шанхае. Демографическая «ситуация»
Запада «кишит» выходцами - мигрантами из Азии и Африки, которые объективно
потребует «место под солнцем», пока реализующимся событиями во Франции, Англии и
т.д. Западноевропейская и американская кино- видео индустрия, невосприимчивая в ХХ
веке к Азии, в настоящее время заполнена восточными религиозно- философскими
течениями и единоборствами. Номадическая культура как составной и определяющий
элемент евразийского пространства в эволюционном процессе выступала в роли
этнообразующего фактора человеческой цивилизации и поэтому его изучения позволит в
определенной мере разрешить противостояния дилеммы Восток-Запад (1;2;3;4;7;9;12);
34
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 - в настоящее время в западноевропейской философии господствует парадигма об
эволюционном происхождении и становлении человечества из земледелия в долинах и
поймах великих рек Янцзы и Хуанхе, Тигра и Евфрата, Нила и т.д., в результате
закономерно происходит умаление роли и значения номадической культуры. В
действительности кочевая цивилизация была не только ведущей детерминантой, но и
определяющей логику и направление естественноисторического процесса. За свою
историю кочевники создали более двух десятков Великих держав в евразийском
пространстве, эволюцию которых мы знаем плохо вследствие простого ее игнорирования.
Сейчас появляется много информации по кочевой культуре, который в целом можно
разделить на следующие точки зрения;
- основная часть советских и западноевропейских ученых придерживается мнения,
что номады это трутни и тупиковая ветвь человеческого прогресса, ничего существенного
не сделавшие в эволюции. Номадизм как форма общественного производства
вообще отрицается вследствие идеологических стереотипов и установок. Представители
этого направления бывшего СССР показали свою неспособность и инфантильность в
условиях свободы слова, волеизъявления и необходимости умения защищать и отстаивать
свою точку зрения. Крайностью этого ' течения является «самовлюбленный нарциссизм»
западноевропейских ученых вследствие полного отрицания номадизма (5;6;7;8;11;14;15);
- некоторые ученые полагают, что номадизм в естественноисторическом процессе
человечества был как случайность и из ряда вон выходящее явление. По их мнению,
кочевая культура была просто переходным этапом к земледелию как более совершенной
организации общественного производства, который оставил в эволюционном процессе не
имеющие значения небольшие фрагменты. В действительности происходит признание, но
с оговоркой, что номадизм не имел определяющей роли в человеческой цивилизации;
- небольшая часть представителей ученой интеллигенции считают номадизм
основной формой организации общественного производства, идеализируя его сущность,
структуру и прошлую историю. Они обращают взоры на специфическое назначение
языческой религии — тенгрианства, т.е. основы, на которой формировались впоследствие
мировые религии, движение - как объективную сущность изменчивости номадизма,
цикличность -как определяющего элемента общества с женским началом и т.д.
Абсолютизация той или иной характерной черты явления изначально подразумевает
ущербность и ошибку в научном исследовании:
Вышеперечисленные точки зрения ученых свидетельствуют о сложности и
многокачественности номадической культуры в человеческой цивилизации в общем и
евразийском пространстве частности. Следовательно, только через системное и
комплексное исследование номадизма и земледелия возможно наиболее объективное
отражение человеческой цивилизации:
- радикальные изменения в современном мире, связанные с глобализационными
процессами и постепенным перемещением центра человечества в Азию закономерно
предполагают переориентацию общественного сознания, ценностей и ориентиров.
Номадическая культура как наличное философское мировоззрение одной из
противоположных сторон человечества - есть всегда отражение природно-генетической
преемственности образа жизни людей и рефлексия мыследвижения. Объективная и
субъективная картина мира азиатского и западноевропейского сообществ и менталитетов
обладают различными сущностями и характерными чертами. Если азиатский менталитет и
35
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 мыследвижение характеризуются как синтез парадигм от индийско-китайской логики с
культом самосознания, коллективного общностного мировосприятия с претензиями
исключительности и мессианизма, то западноевропейская цивилизация отличается
материалистической антропоцентричностью,
прагматической рациональностью и
крайним индивидуализмом. Из этого следует, что методология познания и
историография носят различное содержание в дилемме Восток-Запад. Историография
всегда носила и несет в себе идеологическую подоплеку в соответствии с вызовами
истории и выражением интересов определенного государственного формирования.
Процессы пробуждения Азии связанные с постепенным перемещением центра
человечества на Восток объективно предполагают полное обновление методологии
познания, изменение истории человечества и радикальное совершенствование духовнонравственных ценностей, критериев и норм поведения человека. Следовательно, XXI век
будет веком переориентации общественного сознания, в котором номадическая культура
евразийского пространства внесет определенный вклад в естественноисторический
процесс.
Кочевая цивилизация в историческом развитии формировалась в Евразии
вследствие природно-климатических условий, т.е. обширную территорию занимают
пустыни, полупустыни, степи и горные массивы с альпийскими лугами идеальными для
отгонного скотоводства. Флора и фауна различаются различными природными зонами: от
полупустынных до лесостепных и горных. Животный мир очень богат и многообразен: от
хищников барсов, горных туров, козлов до грызунов, змей и пауков. Центральноазиатский
регион характеризуется оазисным земледелием, в котором речные долины при наличии
воды могут дать хорошие урожаи, но оно носит рискованный нестабильный характер не
только вследствие резко континентального характера климата, а также господства
кочевого образа жизни. Сами природно-климатические условия (полынно-злаковое и
ковыльное многотравье), а также богатый животный мир способствовали развитию охоты и
пастушества. Не собирательство - как основа земледелия, а охота и пастушество и
номадический образ жизни доминировали в евразийском пространстве. Скотоводство и
вследствие
определенных
природноземледелие возникли
одновременно,
но
климатических условий доминировал тот или иной вид общественного -производства,
воздействуя
на
всю
социальную
жизнь
общества. Этногенетическая история
Евразии является исключительно сложной, которая происходила в условиях постоянных
широкомасштабных завоевательных походов, многочисленных миграций и кочевий,
природных катаклизмов. В исторической науке существуют различные точки зрения,
которые являются противоречивыми и взаимоисключающими друг друга вследствие
отсутствия информации или идеологического воздействия для формирования той или иной
угодной стереотипности мышления. Некоторые ученые считают, что номадическая
культура оставила глубокий
след
в
истории
человечества,
о
чем
свидетельствуют археологические, письменные, архивные и этнографические источники,
названия гор, местностей, рек, озер и имен, живущих людей в Азии, Европе, Африке и
Америке.
Эти
источники
и ' данные
требуют фундаментального философского
анализа, которые выступают как вызовы истории и необходимость переориентации
общественного сознания. Согласно их точке зрения кочевая культура господствовала с X
тысячелетия до н.э. вплоть до XVI века. Только затем, когда Великие номадические
державы распались в результате междоусобных братоубийственных войн кочевников,
появилась европейская культура в современном ее понимании.
36
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Системный и комплексный подход требует исследования земледелия и
номадической культуры в человеческой цивилизации как противоположных сторон
общественного прогресса (7;10;11;13). Диалектическое взаимодействие и • взаимовлияние
противоположностей как плюс и минус в электрическом поле, мужское и женское начало,
правое и левое плечо служит не только источником любого движения, но и результатом
изменения, ступенью дальнейшего совершенствование. Из этого следует, что земледелие
и скотоводство служило источником колебательного маятникового взаимоперехода.
Пограничные же сущности служили дополняющими явлениями не только с сочетанием
различных типов земледельческого и кочевого видов организации общественного
производства, но и возможностью выбора наиболее рационального и оптимального
существования, обусловленных природно-климатическими
и культурно-историческими
условиями. Каждая из противоположностей налична специфическими (отличной от
другой) сущностями, которые в условиях взаимоперехода не теряют своих
качественных особенностей, оставаясь самодостаточными, определяя характер • и
содержание
естественноисторического
процесса.
Сложившийся
образ
жизни,
мыследвижение, история и менталитет того или иного этнического образования есть лишь продукт предшествующих этапов развития, результат и основа дальнейшего
эволюционного
совершенствования. Номадическая культура
не только прошедшая
эпоха, но и будущее, т.к. является ее порождением
и сущностью с женским началом
социального организма. Приручение лошади, использование железа (римляне воевали
бронзовыми мечами, а номады железными), а также маневренные телеги (кибитки),
военное снаряжение и искусство способствовали большому преимуществу во всех
отношениях.
Сам
кочевой
образ
жизни
основывался
на родственных
(генеалогических) общинных связях (номадизм зиждется на коллективизме), а
необходимость охраны скота (постоянные набеги) способствовали развитию военного
искусства. Рядом с юртой день и ночь стояла лошадь в полном военном снаряжении и
боевой готовности, а сама жизнь воспитывала с детства стремление к самопожертвованию
и героизму, стойкость и готовность к испытаниям и трудностям. Эти традиции и обычаи
веками наследовались , становясь
плотью
и
кровью,
обновлялись
и
усовершенствовались. Земледельческое население находилось в угнетенном и
подчиненном положении, т.к. кочевники налетали как смерч, выжигая все посевы и
строения, исчезали моментально из поля зрения, сея ужас и смерть. Поэтому им выгоднее
было, заплатив дань и оброк, жить в опеке и спокойствии, зато с сохраненным хлебом и
ясным будущим. Номады обладали по тем временам самым совершенным военным
искусством в тактическом и стратегическом плане. Они в десятки, сотни, тысячи раз были
меньше в количественном отношении, порабощенных ими народов, но военная
маневренность и мобильность, а также бескрайние евразийские просторы степей и
пустынь, обеспечивали их преимущество. Если численно превосходил их противник в
лобовой атаке и бою, они рассыпались как горох во все стороны, неожиданно резко,
возникая концентрированно в тылу или во флангах, наносили смертельные удары.
Используя тактику завлечения и отрыв от противника от своих тылов, или метод
выжженной степи, вынуждали соперника терпеть большие потери и невзгоды. Сами же,
обладая более совершенными видами связи и ориентации в родных просторах, могли
неделями и месяцами день и ночь скакать по степи, растворяясь в тумане, в то время как
главные силы уничтожали тылы противника. В результате таких изнурительных и
беспощадных войн многие земледельческие цивилизации в Китае, Индии, Междуречье,
Египте и даже Рим пали от нашествия варваров.
37
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 В настоящее время существуют теории о том, что будущее человечества зависит
от необходимости предотвращения столкновений культур в результате чего может
произойти новая мировая война. В этом отношении Евразия представляет собой
пограничную зону соединяющую противоположные стороны человеческой цивилизации.
Как самодостаточный общественный организм номадическая культура в Евразии
вследствие приверженности систематического движения и преодоления пространства
подвергалась постоянному изменению природы во внутренней и внешней структуре,
претерпевая сопротивление не только неоднородных противоположных явлений,
но и своей динамичной сущности. Поэтому постоянное преодоление пространства - как
проявление сущности номадизма вынуждало к систематической потере сил и передаче ее
другим социальным системам, вследствие начального господства, а затем полного
растворения и ассимилирования, в большинстве случаев, с другими этническими
общественными формированиями. С другой стороны. Евразийские общества и этносы за
свою историю сменили 4 письменности, 2-3 языка, забыв древнюю религию тенгрианство,
приняли другую веру (ислам, православие, католицизм, буддизм и т.д.). В основной своей
части они по социально- генетическим истокам и памяти являются носителями различных
(порой противоречащих друг другу) культур, которые могут циклическим повторением
проявить свою непредсказуемую изменчивую сущность! Эта характерная особенность
представителей кочевой культуры в евразийском пространстве еще не исследована и
представляет большой теоретический и практический интерес.
СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
1. Акмолдоева Ш.Б. Духовный мир древних кыргызов - Бишкек, Илим, 1998. -268с.
2. Ауэзов М. Иппокрена. Хождение к колодцам времен. - Алматы. Изд. дом «Жибек
жолы»,
1997. -172с.
3. Бакиева Г. А. Социальная память и современность // Отв. ред. А. Бороноев НАН
Кырг.
Институт Философии и права. - Бишкек, Илим, 2000. -220с.
4. Безертинов Р.Н. Тенгрианство - религия тюрков и монголов. -Набережные челны,
2000. - 455с.
5. Гачев Г.Д. Национальные образы мира. - М.; Мысль, 1988. -250с.
6. Гердер И. Идеи к философии истории человечества. - М.; Наука, 1977. -703 с.
7. Гумилев Л.Н. Древняя Русь и Великая степь. - М.; Мысль, 1998. -284 с.
8. Егоров В.К. Философия культуры России: контуры и проблемы.
- М.; РАГС, 2002. -653 с.
9. Каргалов В.В. Русь и кочевники. - М.; Вече, 2004. - 528 с.
10. Мамардашвили М.К. Как я понимаю философию. - М. ; Прогресс, 1990. -366с.
11. Мусаев К История Великой Кыргыз - кыпчакской империи.
- Бишкек, Кыргызстан, 2002. - 580 с.
12. Омуралиев Ч. Босодогу соз же Кытайдын тубун тиреген Кыргыз // г-та Кут билим 15
август 2003ж б 3-6
13. Орынбеков М.С. Генезис религиозности в Казакстане. - Алматы, 2005, - 220 с.
14. Тойнби. А Постижение истории. - М. ; Прогресс, 2000. -720 с.
15. Хазанов А.М. Кочевники и внешний мир. - Алматы. Дайк Пресс, 2002. - 604 с.
38
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ETHNIC IDENTITY OF BURYATS IN RUSSIA, MONGOLIA
AND CHINA
Dugarova Tuyana Tsirenovna,
Ph. D. (Psychology), Assoc. Professor,
Вuryats State University (Ulan-Ude)
e-mail: dugarovatts@mail.ru
The article dwells upon the psychological analysis of personal and group identification of
ethnic identity in the Buryat communities of Russia, Mongolia and China. It is based on such
ethnicity indicators as the idea of a common origin, language and cultural heritage, both material
and spiritual.
Key words: ethnic identity, Buryats of Russia, Mongolia and China, to overcome the
ethnicity crisis, a person of traditional society, mythological consciousness, behaviour strategies,
psychological safety.
The currently unfolding tendency of the Buryat ethnic community of Russia to consolidate
with their historical ethnos living outside Russia gives a strong impetus to the research of the
ethnic self-consciousness of the Russian Buryat community. Buryats are one of the Central Asian
peoples formed by various tribes and clans in the XVIth and XVII centuries. Buryats are a
dispersed nation, living mostly in the world’s three largest countries: more than 445 thousand in
Russia, more than 44 thousand in Mongolia and about 8 thousand in China. Buryat emigration
was connected with the social and political events inside Russia at the turn of the XIXth and XXth
centuries.
Currently Buryatia, a part of Russia, witnesses a revival of the ethnic, territorial, religious,
traditional and historic self-consciousness of the Buryat ethnos.
At present every representative of the Buryat ethnos is facing the necessity to search for
values and models to overcome the ethnicity crisis and restore the ties of kinship. The source for
such values and models is understood to be found in the traditional culture and mentality. The
Buryat society, like any other traditional society, based on norms and rules inherited from the
ancestors, carefully preserves its historical memory represented in myths and legends, the socalled bloodline letters describing long successions of generations in every clan. It is still
considered respectable to remember at least 7 generations which contributes to the clan
consolidation and helps to sustain ties between clans and tribes (Buryats have preserved the
traditional division into tribes and clans: the Khori, the Bulagaty, the Ehirity, the Sartuly, the
Songoly, the Hongodory etc.)
The analysis of personal and group identification in the Buryat communities of Russia,
Mongolia and China provided in this article is based on such ethnicity indicators as the idea of a
common origin, language and cultural heritage, both material and spiritual.
The main factors of identification of the Russian Buryat community with the ones abroad
are real genealogical ties, myths about common origin, about a special sacred native territory (the
so-called ‘toonto’ – the place of birth) and about traditions inherited from the ancestors. The
39
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 consistent need for ethnic identification alongside with attempts to understand an individual’s
family and clan roots determine the specific characteristics of the ethnic self-consciousness of
Buryats. As a result of historical development, the traditional Buryat society has formed its own
“basic senses of culture” (Mukhina, 2007), which determine the ethnic self-consciousness, selfidentification.
Traditionally a Buryat clan is a complex, multi-facet organization with its own material and
symbolic attributes. Its key concepts include bloodline legends and traditions. The bloodline
legends are treated as a kind of spiritual matrix of the tribal society. The bloodline legends are as
a rule originated from a mythical or historical progenitor that is divinified and worshipped. Another
key clan indicator is the clan name. Identifying oneself with a community – a tribe, a clan is not
simply realized, but it determines the norms of behaviour an individual must follow. The clans are
classified into the ‘root’ ones, also called yahan esege (translated into Russian as ‘bone’, ‘father’)
and ‘branch’ ones – halaa (‘branch’) and urag (‘kinship’). The former include three major Buryat
tribes: the Bulagaty, the Ehirity and the Khori. Knowledge of all the branches of one’s family tree
is socially prestigious.
Another important indication of the clan is the possession of native land. In XVII-XVIII
centuries, land possession above all things made the basis of wealth for the clan. The inhabitant
area of every clan was strictly fixed and considered as a sacred place for worshipping deities –
the patrons of the living place. K.M. Gerasimova (1989) points out that in traditional world view
of the Buryat man, assigning the habitation place to bloodline community was regarded as his
sacred right, his spiritual property. Special meaning is given to “toonto” – historical place of
inhabitation of the clan. Some definite place of living was associated not only with possession and
enjoyment of land, pastures, but more over it acquired the quality of unalienable possession and
also the idea of clan unity, symbol of conformity and order in relationship inside the community.
It’s known that the most important quality of traditional society is that a member of
community does not feel as individuality, but he blends with the community. It’s not by chance
that members of traditional community have one and the same name (common totem). In
mythological consciousness of Buryats we can point out some totemic ancestors like: Buha –
noyon (“patron”) of the Bulagat tribe, parti-colored hake – of the Ehirit tribe; Hun-shubuun (swan)
– of the Hori-buryats and the Hongodors. In bloodline titles and legends about the origin of some
Buryat clans were also fixed other zoomorphic cults: eagle – the clan of Sharaid; shono (“wolf”) –
the totem of clan of protomongols borte; dog – totem of the Ehirit clans Bura etc. Totems of the
clans were symbolic and reflected special meaning: consecration to the clan, taboo for hunting,
self-naming and it could also identify some physical qualities of the bearer of totem.
Mythological consciousness, though changed under the influence of social and historical
factors, till nowadays does not loose its value as a special historical memory, to be exact,
bloodline, clan memory, which nowadays more appeals to myth material than kinship. Besides,
we should consider the importance of historical social emotions, which determine the features of
any ethnos.
It is known that language is one of the chief uniting ethnos factors. The Buryat language
situation in Russia is treated in Russia as critical. We should admit that on the state level some
measures are taken for preserving and developing the Buryat language. Thus, the Buryat
language was recognized as the second state language, the Day of Buryat culture was
established, some documents in improving language
education were accepted by the
40
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 government .Certainly, all these make the language prestigious, psychological treatment towards
the language competence changes.
In Mongolia till nowadays the Buryat language is treated as a local or oral dialect, which
was never taught in educational institutions. The proximity of the Mongolian and Buryat language
results into gradual assimilation of the Buryat language, we may consider this as loss of language
by younger generation. The middle and elder generations keep the traditions of language
behaviour.
Chinese or Shenehen buryats (by the name of living place) make Diaspore who managed
to preserve the language in its origin. To Shenehen Buryats, the buryat language is family
language, homey, common and the main means of in-ethnic communication. 91,5% of
respondents regard it as a native language. Buryats do not study it at school, because they are
officially related to the Mongolian ethnic group in China.
In language terms Buryats in three countries are taken as one whole – they speak
different dialects of the Buryat language. The Buryat colloquial language in three countries has
some phonetic, lexical differences, determined by the influence of dominating culture. The acute
problem for all Buryats is still the problem of preserving the language in the situation of non–equal
bilinguism. The Buryat language ceases to carry its communicative, consolidating functions, it has
more symbolic meaning.
Traditional religion of Buryats in three countries is shamanism and its positions are strong
till nowadays. The keeping of spiritual ties with native land is reflected in historical memory of the
nation: ceremony of sacrifice, annual traditions of worshipping local deities as their patrons −
oboo tahilgan, ugaa tahilgan. Nowadays they present a blend of the ancient cults (the cult of hills)
with Buddhist tradition. Buddhism, which has determined mentality of Buryats for many centuries,
today is the strongest nation-uniting factor. Buddhist schools advocate tolerance, love for piece
and flexibility towards mankind in general and individuality in particular, thus they make up values
of modern men and predetermine their ethnic behaviour.
Originally, Buryats bred five kinds of cattles: horses, cows, sheep, camels and goats.
Traditional cattle-breeding is regarded as a factor of successful adaptation and high status of
Buryats in China. Stable economic position signified the final process of adaptation of Shenehen
Buryats in the Northern China; they took their place in agricultural structure of China as suppliers
of meat. From the beginning of migration to Mongolia, Buryats inhabited the northern part of the
country, which bordered on the territory of their habitation in Russia. The closeness of
geographical habitations made them continue traditional farming. In Russia, in the situation of
radical social-economic reforms some serious changes took place in life of Buryats living in
countryside. Nevertheless, nowadays we can witness the tendency of revival of buried forms of
clan settlement, development of traditional farming. In the whole, traditional kinds of farming of
Buryats in Russia, Mongolia and China nowadays change, their economy harmoniously combines
with Russian, Mongolian and Chinese.
National cuisine of separated settlements of Buryats has much in common. Meat, dairy
dishes and drinks are the necessary elements of festive and ritual ceremonies. The tradition of
dividing meat in accordance with father-son relations is also preserved. In Russia alongside with
the development of tourist business in Baikal region, Buryat national cuisine acquires brand
qualities.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 In Buryat world, ethno cultural traditions are kept and actualized. Today many folk
groups, national communities, national theatres are active in Buryatia. In China, Shenehen
Buryats have kept original Buryat songs, at the same time still remember Buryat songs of Soviet
times. International Buryat festival “Altargana” has great impact in rebirth of Buryat traditions.
For Buryats who live in Mongolia, ethnic identity is secondary in comparison to national.
Buryats in Mongolia consider themselves the Mongols. Probably, it is the influence of migration
history and repressions against Buryats in Mongolia in 30s’ of 20th century.
Today self-consciousness of Russian Buryats is synthesized, traditional and modernistic
values are intermixed in individuality. The value structure of Buryats is, so to say, «layered pie» of
values given inside and out of Russian, European, Soviet and postmodern cultures.
T.D..Scrynnikova (2005) points out the following levels of self-identification for Buryats in
the middle of ХIХ century: “clan − tribe − Buryats − Buryat-mongols − Buddhists − Russians, not
excluding each other”. Today, as T.D. Scrynnikova notes, «here is a process simultaneous
enlivenment of all levels, from generic to Russian». Т.М.Mikhailov (1996), К.М. Gerasimova
(1989), T.D. Scrynnikova (2005), Z.P.Morohoeva (1994) scientists note that, in the Soviet times,
Buryats acquired values, norms, ideals of different cultures, Russian and European in particular.
That was all alongside with evident crisis of ethnic identity. I.N. Dashibalova (2006) characterizes
it as ethno psychological duality of consciousness and considers it a problem of relating to this or
that ethnic group.
Marginality of modern Buryats in Russia and Mongolia is one of the peculiarities which
will, probably, influence their high geographic and social mobility.
The analysis of the articles, scientific expeditions’ material (to the place of habitation of
Buryats in Russia, Mongolia and China), and multiple interviews let us state that continual
segmented settlement of Buryats in three countries did not interfere with the major ethno cultural
points. Buryats in Russia, Mongolia and China kept ethnic self consciousness, common
mythological consciousness, the language, traditional ethnic values. Modern Buryats in three
countries are united by bioanthropological peculiarities, are people “of one blood”, and also united
by the terms “ethnic country”, “common native land”. Buryats in three countries are still united by
“spirit”, “national character”.
Mobilization of ethnic identity of Buryats is necessary for storing experience for
overcoming difficulties, for forming the feeling of psychological safety.
The peculiarity of ethnic self-consciousness of Buryats in Russia, Mongolia and China is
the gradual transition into the state of “modern nomads”. They move from ethnic identity into
citizenship, professional, gender, territorial, religious and other identities. For Buryats, cultural
complexity and hybridism becomes a standard. Berri J.W and his colleagues (1989) described
some variants of acculturation: assimilation, separation, integration and marginalization. We
realize that in every country Buryats choose their strategy of behavior, and it is essential that
individuals differ inside the group by their acculturation strategies and attitudes. Berri J.W. (1994)
wrote that there is no one accultural example, but there is a list of strategies and consequences,
which lead to different levels of adaptation.
Mongolian nations including Buryat are related to the type of hardly modernizing cultures,
which keep their traditional structure and elements of tribal way of thinking. It is typical of Buryat
society orientations and social expectations toward a personality as a representative of a tribe,not
42
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 an independent personality. The tribal culture is a moderator between generations for keeping
traditions, values and relations “We” – “They”, and in the whole defines ethnic identity.
We research ethnic identity of 73 teenagers –test “What am I” Kyn-Macpartlend. The
research is done among Buryat teenagers who live in Russia and China (the so called
“shenekhen” Buryats ). We pay our attention to the answers indicating nationality. According to
the results of research in Russia, respondents identify themselves first of all as “pupils”. Then
there are some categories of gender, human being. Teenagers emphasize their Personality
status. Buryat teenagers from Buryat national schools indicate ethnic membershipness more
often than the Buryats from Russian schools. The “shenekhen” Buryats answer the guestion
“What am I” indicating nationality first of all.
Psychological stability of ethnic identity is determined by its capability to develop new
behaviour strategies under multicultural influence. We research coping-strategies(ways of
overcoming difficult life situations) among respondents. Adaptive coping-strategies are more
popular among “shenekhen” Buryats.
REFERENCES
1. Berri, J.W., Kim, U., Power, S., Young, M., Bujaki, M.(1989), Acculturation attitudes in
plural societies, Applied Psychology, 38: 185—206.
2. Berry, J.W.(1994), Acculturation and psychological adaptation, in A.M. Bouvy (eds) .
Journeys into cross-cultural psychology: Selected papers from the 11th International
conference of the International association for cross-cultural psychology; Liege,
Belgium. Lisse etc.: Swets & Zeitlinger, pp 139—140.
3. Мухина, В.С.(2007), Личность: Мифы и Реальность (Альтернативный взгляд.
Системный подход. Инновационные аспекты), Екатеринбург.
4. Михайлов,Т.М.(1996) Проблемы консолидации и духовного возрождения
бурятского народа Материалы Всебурятского съезда по консолидации и
духовному возрождению нации. Улан-Удэ.
5. Герасимова, К.М.(1989), Традиционные верования тибетцев в культовой
системе ламаизма, Новосибирск.
6. Скрынникова , Т.Д. (2005), Бурятская этничность в контексте социокультурной
модернизации (постсоветский период). Иркутск.
7. Морохоева, З.П.(1994), Личность в культурах Востока и Запада: К постановке
проблемы. Новосибирск.
8. Дашибалова, И.Н.(2006), Проблемы этнической стереотипизации бурят в
ценностном аспекте, Улан-Удэ.
9. Васильева, М.С., Дугарова, Т.Ц.(2007), Буряты в новом столетии: социальноэкологический аспект, Улан-Удэ.
43
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 KÜRESELLEŞME SÜRECİNDE TARIM’DA SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİRLİK VE ÇEVRE SORUNLARI
Dr. Eyüp ZENGİN,
Başbakanlık Türk İşbirliği ve Kalkınma İdaresi Başkanlığı, Uzman, Ankara
ezengin@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The environmental problems harming the agricultural sector are basically related with the
disharmonies of the leading components of environment such soil , water and air. As a result of
rapid growth in our country , fertile lands are being reserved for non-agricultural fields such as
the housing, industrial and public sector investments. Agricultural system should be adapted and
regulated according to the environmental conditions ( land, water, climate, harmful and diseased
populations ) of the region. It is necessary to supply the agricultural inputs from the local
renewable biologic resources and make use of them by retaining their renewable features as
much as possible.
РЕЗЮМЕ Проблемы, связанные с воздействием на окружающую среду, в основном, на воду,
землю, воздух, непосредственно относятся к нестабилизации природы. Как следствие
сильного развития в нашей стране, благоприятные
земельные участки с
увеличивающимся объемом делиться на различные вне сельскохозяйственные источники.
Сельскохозяйственная система должна адаптироваться и стабилизироваться по отраслям
окружающей среды (как земля, вода климат, вредные и болезненные популяции). Местные
сельскохозяйственные продукты, как можно больше, нужно получать из обновленных
местных источников и использовать их по их охраняемым свойствам.
GİRİŞ
Tarım bir ülkenin var olma veya yok olma sorunudur (Karaca, 2001:17). Tarımsal üretim
toprak, su ve hava gibi çevrenin başta gelen öğelerine sıkı sıkıya bağlıdır. Bu temel öğelerde
meydana gelen herhangi bir sorun tarımsal üretimi direkt olarak etkilemektedir. Ancak burada
belirtilmesi gereken önemli bir konuda, tarımsal üretimin de çevre sorunlarına yol açmasıdır.
Tarım sektörü, bir yandan çevre sorunlarından büyük ölçüde etkilenirken, bir yandan da çevreyi
bozucu, çevre sorunlarının ortaya çıkmasına yol açıcı rol oynamaktadır. Ancak tarım sektörü
diğer taraftan da çevreci bir rol üstlenmiş durumdadır. Dolayısıyla çevre ve tarım ilişkisi üç farklı
boyutta karşımıza çıkmaktadır (TZOB, 1998:297-308).
Tümüyle doğal koşullarda yapılan tarımın çevre kirlenmesi ve ekolojik dengenin
bozulması üzerinde hiç bir etkisi yoktur. Ancak, tarımda hastalık ve zararlılara karşı kimyasal ilaç
kullanılması bir anlamda zorunludur. İlaç kullanmak o tarlada doğal olarak bulunan hastalık ve
zararlılar yanında diğer faunayı da etkiler. Aslında hastalık ve zararlı olarak tanımlanan bu
44
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 canlıların tek görevleri doğaları gereği olarak yaşamlarını sürdürmeleridir. Ancak, insanoğlu
gıdalarını bu canlılar ile paylaşmak niyetinde olmadığı için o canlıların bu ürünleri tüketmelerine
izin vermemektedir. Kuşlara karşı korkuluk, ses silahı gibi tümüyle fiziksel önlemlerin ve biyolojik
kontrol uygulamalarının dışındaki kimyasal ilaç uygulamaları bir yandan hedef canlının dışındaki
flora ve faunayı doğrudan ve dolaylı olarak etkilerken, öte yandan bu gıdaların üzerinde kalarak
insan sağlığını olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Özellikle son yıllarda tüketicilerde hormon uygulamasına karşı kayda değer bir endişe ve tepki varken asıl tehlike olan kimyasal ilaç uygulaması
tümüyle göz ardı edilmektedir.
Tarım sektörüne zarar veren çevre sorunları, temelde, toprak, su ve hava gibi çevrenin
başta gelen öğelerindeki düzensizliklerle ilgili bulunmaktadır. Tarımda verimliliğin en etkin aracı
topraktır (Kaplan, 2001:71). Topraklar, tarım sektörü için vazgeçilmez bir üretim faktörü olduğu
kadar, sanayi ve kentleşme için de aynı derecede önem taşımaktadır. Bu durum, toprakların
çeşitli kullanımlar arasındaki dağılımının en iyi bir şekilde yapılmasını zorunlu kılmaktadır. Ancak
bu dağılım yapılırken, tarımsal üretimin gerçekleştirilmesi için tarım yapılabilecek arazinin mutlaka
gerekli olduğu ve bu tür arazilerin oluşumunun çok uzun yıllarda gerçekleştiği unutulmamalıdır.
Tarım arazisinin bu oluşum sürecini hızlandırmak mümkün olmadığı gibi, miktarı da
artırılamamaktadır.
Araziler toprakların tarım bakımından işlenmeye karşı göstermiş oldukları sınırlayıcı
özelliklerine göre hiç sorun göstermeyen I. sınıf araziler ile bitkisel üretime olanak vermeyen VIII .
sınıf arasında sekiz sınıfa ayrılmaktadır. Tanımlanan bu sekiz sınıfın ilk dört grubu tarımsal
işlemeye uygun, diğerleri ise orman ve doğal çayırlar ile doğal yaşam için uygun ve devamlı bitki
örtüsü altında bulundurulması gereken alanlar ile çeşitli sorunlara sahip alanları kapsamına alır
(Haktanır ve düğerleri, 2000:203).
Sanayi tesisleri, ulaşım ve diğer altyapı kolaylıkları gibi nedenlerden dolayı genellikle düz
ve verimli araziler üzerinde kurulmaktadır. Böylelikle tarım topraklarının amaç dışı kullanımı
konusunda karşı karşıya bulunan en önemli sorunlardan biri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Sanayi tesisleri
sadece kapladıkları alan itibariyle zarara neden olmamakta, yarattıkları kirlenmelerle çevresinde
bulunan tarım arazilerini ve bitki örtüsünü olumsuz yönde etkilemektedirler.
Avrupa Birliği ülkelerindeki tarımsal üretim, diğer faktörler yanında son yirmi yıldır artan
gübre ve pestisid kullanımı ile tarımda mekanizasyonun yaygın kullanımının bir sonucu olarak çok
artmıştır. Her ne kadar tarımsal üretim artışının insanlara bir çok faydası dokunsa da modern
tarım uygulamalarının toprağın ve yer altı suyunun kalitesi üzerinde olumsuz etkileri
bulunmaktadır (Şehsuvaroğlu, 2001:113). Avrupa Konseyi Bakanlar Komitesi'nin 19.5.1972
tarihinde onayladığı 720 sayılı Avrupa Toprak Anlaşması'da çevre sorunları karşısında bu
ülkelerin tarım politikalarındaki yeni eğilimleri yansıtması açısından önemli bir belgedir. Bu
antlaşmanın ilkeleri özetle şöyledir:
1- Toprak insanlığın en değerli serveti olup, kolaylıkla tahrip edilebilen sınırlı bir kaynaktır.
2- Her türlü toprak kullanım politikası toprakların niteliklerini koruyucu yöntemlerin
kullanımını ve toprakların yarının toplumlarının da bir gereksinimi olduğunu dikkate almalıdır.
3- Topraklar erozyona karşı korunmalıdır.
4- Kentleşme ve altyapı tesislerinin çevre arazilerdeki etkileri iyi planlanmalı ve uygun
önlemler alınmalıdır.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 5- Toprak kaynaklarının envanteri yapılmalı ve rasyonel kullanılmasını sağlamak için
araştırmalar yapılmalıdır.
6- Hükümetler ve yönetimler toprak kaynaklarını rasyonel bir biçimde planlamalı ve
yönetmelidir.
Bu temel ilke ve öneriler doğrultusunda daha ayrıntılı önlem ve politikalar oluşturularak,
yer yer uygulamaya da geçilmiştir.
TARIM SEKTÖRÜNÜN YOL AÇTIĞI ÇEVRE SORUNLARI
Tarımsal üretimde birim alandan elde edilen üretimin, yani verimliliğin artırılmasında
gübre, ilaç, sulama gibi tarım girdilerinin kullanımı önemli rol oynamaktadır. Bu girdilerden gübre,
tarımsal mücadele ilacı ve gelişmeyi düzenleyici maddelerin (hormonlar) kullanımı esnasında
yapılan yanlışlıklar çevre kirliliğine neden olmaktadır. Söz konusu kirliliğin olumsuz etkileri tarım
sektöründe de görülmektedir.
Eko tarım çalışmalarında, sürdürülebilir tarım stratejisi çerçevesinde, su, gübre, ilaç,
hormon v.b. tarımsal girdi kullanımında özenli davranma gereği daha da önem kazanmıştır. Bitki
korumada entegre mücadele fikrinin yaygınlaşmasıyla birlikte özellikle mekanik yabancı ot
mücadelesi önem kazanmış, ilaç aplikasyon tekniklerindeki gelişmelerin olumlu etkisiyle bitki
koruma ilaçları kullanımında % 50’ye varan tasarruf oluşmuştur (DPT, 2001:157).
Gübre, tarımsal üretimin en önemli girdilerinden biri olarak kabul edilmektedir. Tarımda
verimliliğin artırılması, birim alana daha fazla girdi kullanımını gerektirmekte ve bu nedenle bitki
beslenmesinde önemli rol oynayan gübre ve gübreleme ön plana çıkmaktadır. Hatta çoğu zaman
gübre üretimi ve tüketimi tarımsal gelişmenin bir göstergesi olarak kabul edilmektedir.
Gübrenin toprak analizi yapılmadan, yani gübrelenecek toprağı tanımadan bilinçsizce
kullanılması sonucunda önemli boyutlarda çevre kirlilikleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Yanlış ve aşırı
gübre kullanımı toprak ve su kirliliğine neden olmaktadır. Bunun önemli boyutlarda enerji ve
finansman kaybına da neden olduğu bilinmektedir. Nitrat ve fosfat gibi suda kolay erimeyen kimyasal maddelerin yüzey ve yeraltı sularına karışmasıyla insan sağlığı yönünden zararlı sonuçlarla
karşılaşılabilmektedir.
Birim alanda bitkisel üretimin artırılmasında en önemli etmen kuşkusuz sulama ve
gübrelemedir. Gübrelerin toprakta bitkilerin alabileceği forma dönüşmesinde ve bitkiler tarafından
alınmasında toprak suyuna mutlak ihtiyaç vardır (Doğan, 2001:77).
Tarımda verimliliğin artırılmasında ve kaliteli ürün üretiminde etkili ve gerekli olan bir
başka tarımsal üretim faaliyeti tarımsal hastalık ve zararlılara karşı mücadeledir. Bu amaçla
kullanıla gelen çok çeşitli kimyasal bileşikler vardır. Bu bileşikleri oluşturan maddelerin bir kısmı
uzun süre toprakta kalabilmekte, bir kısmı da suya geçebilmektedir. Böylelikle toprak ve su kirliliğine neden olan ilaç kalıntıları topraktaki yararlı mikroorganizmaları kısmen ya da tamamen yok
edebilmektedir, ilaç kullanımının yol açtığı çevre kirliliğine bazı bölgelerde rastlanmaktadır, ilaç
kalıntılarının yol açtığı toprak ve su kirliliği, bu ortamda yetiştirilen bitkiler yoluyla gıda zincirine
girmekte, insan, hayvan ve diğer canlıları olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Burada belirtilmesi
gereken bir diğer konu ise, son yıllarda kullanımı giderek yaygınlaşan "gelişmeyi düzenleyici
maddeler", yani kamuoyu tarafından bilinen adıyla "hormon"la ilgilidir. Bu tür maddelerin
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 kullanımıyla gıda kirlenmeleri, bu gıdaların kullanımı da insanlarda gelişim bozukluklarına neden
olabilmektedir.
Çevre sorunlarına neden olan bir diğer tarımsal kökenli etken, hayvansal üretim sonucu
ortaya çıkan atıklardır. Hayvancılık işletmelerinden yayılan koku ve atıkların toprak ya da sulara
karışması şeklinde ortaya çıkan bu tür çevre kirliliğine, Türkiye’dee sıkça rastlanıldığını söylemek
son derece güçtür. Bu tip kirlenmenin en belirgin örnekleri Hollanda ve Danimarka gibi ülkelerde
görülmektedir. Ayrıca, Dünya verilerinde hektar başına verilen 1345-1681 kg. buğdaydan 2,2
metrik ton samanın atık olarak çıktığı hesaplanmıştır (Gök ve Kolankaya, 1987:233-239).
Bugün çevre sorunları ve bu sorunlarla birlikte önemini her geçen gün biraz daha
hissettiren ormansızlaşma, erozyon ve çölleşme gibi olaylar hemen hemen tüm insanların
yabancısı olmadığı konulardır. 1977 yılında Konya'da yapılan Birleşmiş Milletler Çölleşme
Konferansı'nda; "çevresel bir olay olarak çölleşmenin, insanların neden olduğu, sonuçlarından
insanların zarar görüp acı çektiği, savaşımını da yine insanların yaptığı, insanlığın bugününü ve
yarınını yakından ilgilendiren evrensel bir sorun olduğu" belirtilmiştir. Örneğin, Afrika'da Sahra
Çölü’nün güneyindeki kuşakta ve diğer yörelerde açlık ve susuzluğun ölüme mahkum ettiği
insanların sayısı 40 milyona ulaşmaktadır (Günay, 1995). Yine, Birleşmiş Milletler Dünya Tarım
ve Gıda Teşkilatı'na (FAO) göre; dünyada 800 milyon kişi kronik yetersiz beslenme nedeniyle
açlık çekmektedir. Çünkü, 18. yüzyıldan itibaren hızlanan sanayileşme ve şehirleşme ile hızlı
nüfus artışının, insanlığın toprak, hava ve su gibi doğal kaynaklar dolayısıyla da beslenme
imkanları üzerindeki baskısını artırmaktadır.
Çevre bozulması olayı ve çölleşme genelde ansızın gelen bir doğal afet sonucunda (çığ,
sel, deprem, gibi) değil, çevre koşullarının bozulması ve düşünen bir varlık olan insanların eliyle
olmaktadır. Yeryüzünde bütün yaşam toprakla yakın ilişki içerisindedir. Ölmüş organik artıkların
parçalanması ve dönüşümünü sağlayan mikroorganizmalar, toprakta kök salan ve ondan su ve
çeşitli besin maddeleri alan tüm bitkiler, bitkilerle beslenen hayvanlar ve sonuçta bitkisel ve
hayvansal ürünlerle beslenen insan ile toprak arasında çok sıkı bir yaşam zinciri vardır.
Erozyon ya da diğer adıyla toprak aşınımı toprağı koruyan bitki örtüsünün insanlarca yok
edilmesi sonucu toprağın su ve rüzgarın etkisiyle aşınması ve taşınması olarak tanımlanmaktadır.
Tarım topraklarının büyük ölçekte nicelik ve nitelik yitirmesinin en önemli nedeni hızlandırılmış
toprak aşınımıdır(Haktanır, 2001, 22). Yanlış arazi kullanımı, aşırı hayvan otlatma, orman yangınları, arazi eğimi, jeolojik yapı
ve iklim, erozyonu oluşturan doğal nedenlerdir. Teknik etmenler ise, orman tahribi kontrolsüz ve
aşırı mera kullanımı, bitkisel-kültürel-fıziksel toprak koruma önlemlerinin yeterince alınmaması ve
anız yakılması şeklinde sıralanabilir. Bunların yanısıra; arazi mülkiyet dağılımının düzensizliği ve
küçük işletmelerin çokluğu ile çiftçilerin erozyondan korunma önlemleri konusunda yeterli eğitimi
almamış olmaları, erozyonun oluşmasında etken olan sosyo-ekonomik etmenleri oluşturmaktadır.
Erozyona karşı etkin ve yeterli önlemler alınması, bazı darboğazların giderilmesiyle
sağlanabilir. Bunun için öncelikle optimal işletme büyüklerinin belirlenmesi ve arazilerin miras
yoluyla küçük parçalara bölünmesinin önlenmesi gerekir.
Yanlış arazi kullanımının neden olduğu diğer bir sorunda kamunun desteklediği
uygulamalarla çoraklaşan ve erozyonun temel nedeni olan meralardır. Bilindiği gibi, iyi durumdaki
çayır-meralar düşen yağışların büyük kısmını bünyelerinde tutarak ya da toprağa yavaş yavaş
vererek kayıp miktarını azaltmaktadır. Son değerlendirmelerde yeryüzünde karaların %50’si mera
47
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 ve çayır olarak kullanılmaktadır. Orman alanları gibi sürekli bitki ile kaplı bu biyolojik alanlar son
yıllarda özellikle gelişmiş ülkelerde doğa, çevre ve ekonomik yönleri ile değerlendirilerek ayrı bir
önem kazanmıştır (Büyükburç ve Arkaç, 2000:335).
Çayır ve meraların oluşturdukları bitki örtüsü nedeniyle, doğayı düzenleyici etkileri
yanında, önemli bir oksijen ve doğal yem kaynağı olması gibi özellikleri de bulunmaktadır. Bu
nedenle çayır ve meraların giderek yok olmasıyla, bir taraftan hayvancılık yönünden büyük önem
taşıyan yem üretimi azalmakta, diğer taraftan çevre sorunlarının ortaya çıkmasına neden
olunmaktadır.
Orman alanlarında da çayır ve meralara ilişkin olumsuzluklara benzer gelişmeler
gözlenmektedir. Toprak verimliliğinin korunmasından, iklim üzerine olumlu etki yapmaları,
insanların rekreasyon ihtiyacının karşılanması iş alanı ve geçim kaynağı yaratmaya kadar pek
çok yararına karşılık, daha öz bir anlatımla, doğaya, insan yaşamına ve ekonomiye yaptıkları
katkılara rağmen, ormancılık konusundaki olumsuz gelişmeler devam etmektedir. Orman
alanlarının tarlaya dönüştürülmesi suretiyle daralması süreci tüm hızıyla yaşanmaktadır.
Sanayileşmiş ve geleneksel tarımın çevreye etkileri arasında farklar vardır. Bu farkları
aşağıdaki biçimde gösterebiliriz:
SANAYİLEŞMİŞ TARIMIN ÇEVREYE ETKİLERİ
1-Tarım erozyonu: toprak verimliliğinin yanlış kullanım nedeniyle kaybı, toprak
muhafazası tekniklerinin pratiğe aktarılmalarındaki başarısızlık ve organik gübrelerin çok az
kullanımı,
2- Aşırı sulanan topraklarda tuzlanma ve göllenme,
3- Aşırı pestisit ve ticari inorganik gübre kullanımı nedeniyle toprakta madde dönüşümü
sağlayan mikroorganizmaların sayısında ve çeşitliliğinde azalma ve büyük traktörler ve diğer
çiftlik araçları nedeniyle toprak sıkışması,
4- Yeşil bitki örtüsü ile muhafaza edilmeyen tarlalardan aşırı otlatılmış otlaklardan
kaynaklanan tozuma nedeniyle hava kirliliği,
5- Uçaklardan ve yer aletlerinden püskürtülen pestisit damlaları ile bitki ve toprak
üstündeki pestisitlerin havaya uçması nedeniyle doğan hava kirliliği,
6- Sanayileşmiş tarımda kullanılan çok büyük miktardaki fosil yakıtların akstraksiyonu,
işlenmesi, nakli ve yakılma sırasında doğan hava kirliliği,
7- Büyük deltaların ve okyanus bölgelerinin denizde kurulu petrol kuyuları ve tankerlerden
çıkan petrol ve iyi muhafaza edilmeyen petrol atıkları nedeniyle kirlenmesi(Petrol sanayileşmiş
tarımın ana fosil yakıtıdır),
8- Akarsuların, göllerin ve büyük deltaların kirlenmesi, balık ve kabuklu hayvanların
pestisitlerden dolayı ölümü,
9- Yer altı su kaynaklarının sulama için aşırı kullanım sonucu tükenmeleri,
48
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 10-Yer altı su kaynaklarının suda eriyebilir pestisitlerin, ticari gübrelerdeki nitratın ve
sulama suyundaki tuzun sızması sonucu kirlenmesi,
11- Göllerin ve ağır akan nehirlerin ticari inorganik gübrelerdeki nitrat ve fosfatın, çiftlik
hayvanları atıklarının ve gıda işleme tesislerinin atıklarının karışması sonucu aşırı kirlenmesi,
12- Yüzey sularında erozyon, tarla topraklarından ve hayvan barınaklarından karışma
sonucu sediment kirliliği,
13- Biyolojik olarak farklı bitkilerden oluşmuş meraların ve ormanların temizlenmesi ve
onların yerine tek bir ürün çeşidinin monokültürü yapılması sonucu bitkilerin genetik farklılığının
kaybolması(Her yıl dünya çapında orman tahribinin yaklaşık %85’i bu alanların tarıma açılmasına
dayanmaktadır),
14- Mera ve ormanların temizlenmesi ve bataklıkların tarıma açılması sonucu yaşam
alanlarının kaybolmasından dolayı yabanıl yaşamın tehlikeye girmesi ve yok olması,
15- Aşırı avlanma sonucu ticari yönden önemli balık türlerinin azalması ve yok olması,
16- İçme suyundaki nitratlar ve içme suyu, gıdalar ve atmosferdeki pestisitlerden dolayı
insan sağlığının tehdit edilmesi.
GELENEKSEL YAŞAM TARIMI VE İNTENSİF TARIMIN ÇEVREYE ETKİLERİ:
1- Eğimli dağ yamaçlarının teraslama yapılmadan tarıma açılması sonucu toprak
erozyonu ve toprak verimliliğinin hızla kaybı, tropik ormanlarda toprağın kendi verimliliğini tekrar
kazanmasına fırsat vermeden tarım yapılması, otlaklarda aşırı otlatma, ve yakacak elde etmek ve
tarım arazisi kazanmak için orman tahribi,
2- Dağlık alanlardaki orman tahribi sonucu ovaların daha sık ve daha şiddetli su
taşkınlarına uğraması,
3- Tarım için uygun olmayan toprağa sahip marjinal alanların tarıma açılması, aşırı
otlatma, orman tahribi ve toprak muhafaza tekniklerinin iyi uygulanmaması sonucu çölleşme,
4- Bitki örtüsüyle korunmayan tarım alanlarından ve aşırı otlatılan otlaklardan doğan
tozuma sonucu hava kirliliği,
5- Yüzey sularında, erozyona uğramış tarlalardan, aşırı otlatılmış otlaklardan ve
ormansızlaştırılmış alanlardan gelen sedimentler nedeniyle sediment kirliliği,
6- Otlakların ve ormanların tarıma açılması sonucu yaşam yerlerinin kaybı nedeniyle
hayvansal yabani yaşamın azalması ve yok olması,
7- Kötü toprak kullanımı nedeniyle artan su taşkınlığı, su kanallarına ve içme suyu
kaynaklarına insan ve hayvan atıklarının karışması veya yıkanması nedeniyle insan sağlığının
tehdit edilmesi (Sürdürülebilir Dünya, 290-291).
49
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 TARIMDA SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİRLİK
1992 yılında Rio de Janeiro'da düzenlenen “BM Çevre ve Kalkınma Konferansı
(UNCED)”nda sürdürülebilir kalkınma için taslak olarak Gündem 21 benimsendi. Gündem 21’in
14. Kısmı, yani “Sürdürülebilir Tarım ve Kırsal Kalkınma”, 2025 yılında tahmin edilen nüfusun
%83’ünün kalkınmakta olan ülkelerde yaşayacağını belirtmektedir. Gündeme göre, "gıda ve lif
üretimi taleplerini karşılayacak mevcut kaynaklar ve teknolojiler belirsizliğini korumaktadır. Tarım
bu sorunu, halen kullanımda olan alandan alınan ürünü artırarak ve böylece daha fazla araziye
yayılma gerekliliğini önleyerek karşılamalıdır." Bu bağlamda "sürdürülebilir yoğunlaşma" gidilmesi
gereken yol olarak önerilmiş olup, Global Crop Protection Federation (GCPF) bu hedefin
gerçekleştirilmesine katkıda bulunmaya çalışmaktadır
Dünyada Entegre Ürün Yönetimi(ICM-Integrated Crop Management) hareketleri, çevreyi
ve insanı tek bir sistem olarak gören (holistik) çiftçilik yaklaşımını vurgulamaktadır. Tüm kıtalarda
kültürel uygulamalar (örn. bitki rotasyonu, haşere izleme) ile biyolojik, biyoteknolojik ve kimyasal
Bitki Koruma ilaçlarını bir arada içeren Entegre Mücadele(IPM-Integrated Pest Management)
girişimleri ürünlerinin kullanımı, güvenli ve çevreye saygılı olmalıdır. Sektörün global derneği
GCPF(Global Crop Protection Federation) tarafından başlatılıp desteklenen özel “Güvenli
Kullanma Projeleri”nin hedefi budur. Bu projeler Guatemala, Kenya ve Tayland gibi özellikle
gelişen ülkelerdeki durumu ele almaktadır. Bitki Korumanın önemini vurgulayan bu projeler şimdi
eğitim ve öğretime ağırlık verilerek komşu ülkelere yaygınlaştırılmaktadır ve hükümetler,
akademik çevre, gayriresmi kurumlar ve uluslararası topluluk ile birlikte çalışmayı hedef
almaktadır. Amaç, Bitki Koruma İlaçlarının üretimi, taşınması, kullanılması ve atılmasında sürekli
gelişme sağlamaktır.
GCPF, 73 ülkede dünyanın araştırmaya dayalı mahsul koruma sektörünün yaklaşık
%90’ını temsil etmektedir. Tarımsal Araştırma-Geliştirmeye yaptığı önemli yatırım - 3 milyar ABD
dolarından fazla veya 1998 cirosunun yaklaşık % 10’u, Entegre Ürün Yönetimi kapsamında yeni
bilimsel çözümler geliştirerek sürdürülebilir tarıma yönelik uzun vadeli katkılarda bulunmaktadır.
Entegre Mücadele(IPM) 21 Gündem 21’in sürdürülebilir tarıma yönelik yaklaşımının kilit
unsurudur ve iki temel yaklaşımı vardır:
1- Bölgesel çok branşlı projelerin güçlendirilmesi ve Entegre Mücadelenin tarımda gıda
ve değerli mahsuller açısından sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel yararını sergileyen Entegre
Mücadele ağları kurmak.
2- Biyolojik, fiziksel ve kültürel kontrollerin, ayrıca kimyasal kontrollerin türünün bölgelerin
şartlarının dikkate alınarak seçilmesini kapsayan uygun Entegre Mücadele geliştirmek.
GCPF sürdürülebilir tarıma kendisini adamıştır ve Entegre Ürün Yönetimi gibi çiftçilik
sistemlerinin uygulanmasını teşvik etmektedir. Bu yaklaşım çeşitlilik gösteren ve sağlıklı bir
çevreye gösterilen ekolojik özen ile tarıma yönelik ekonomik talepleri birleştirmektedir. Entegre
Ürün Yönetiminin esas unsurlarından biri Entegre Mücadeledir. Bu, haşere sayısını ekonomik
açıdan kabul edilemeyecek zarar verecek düzeylerin altında tutmak için uygun tüm teknolojiler ve
yöntemlerden yararlanan bir haşere kontrol sistemidir. Biyolojik ve mekanik haşere kontrol
önlemleri ile Bitki Koruma İlaçlarının rasyonel kullanımını birleştirmektedir. 1997 yılında tüm
GCPF üyesi şirketler, sektörün Entegre Mücadele uygulamalarının dünya çapında tüm GCPF
üyesi kurumlar ve şirketlerce benimsenmesi ve uygulanmasını teşvik eden Entegre Mücadele
50
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Deklarasyonu'na imza atmıştır. Bu bağlamda GCPF üyesi şirketler, çok sayıda Entegre Mücadele
projesinde kamu sektörü ile işbirliği içinde çalışmaktadır (Dağ ve diğerleri, 2000:948‐949).
Çevrecilere göre, dünyadaki açlığı ve endüstriyel ve geleneksel tarım yöntemlerinin
zararlı çevresel etkilerini azaltmanın anahtarı dünyada sürdürülebilir tarım sistemleri geliştirmektir.
Bu sistem, var olan endüstriyel ve geçinme tarım sistemlerinin uygun kısımları ile yeni tarım
tekniklerini birleştirerek lokal iklimler, topraklar, kaynaklar ve yetiştirme sistemlerinden
yararlanmayı amaçlamaktadır.
Aşağıdaki maddeler sürdürülebilir dünya tarımının esas unsurlarıdır:
1- En fazla önem toprağı korumaya ve suyu korumaya verilmelidir: Kabul edilmelidir ki
Pazar, tarımı bu konuda destekleyemez. Çünkü Pazar tüm tarımın bağımlı olduğu toprak ve su
için sınırsız bir değer tayin etmez.
2- Tarım sistemi bölgenin çevre koşullarına göre (toprak, su, iklim, zararlı ve hastalık
populasyonları) adapte edilmeli ve düzenlenmelidir. Bu, bitki örtüsünü tarlada korumak, su
tasarrufunu teşvik amacıyla su fiyatlarını arttırmak, toprağın organik madde içeriğini arttırmak,
kurak veya yarı kurak bölgelerde hayvan otlatmayı sınırlamak ve bu bölgelerde su gereksinimi
fazla olan ürünleri yetiştirmemeye çalışmak demektir. Esas olarak tek bir kültür bitkisinin hayvanın
üretimine ağırlık vermek yerine, çok yıllıklar da dahil olmak üzere yoğun polikültüre ve değişik
hayvan tiplerini yetiştirmeye önem verilmelidir.
3- Mümkün olduğunca tarımsal girdileri yerel ve yenilenebilir biyolojik kaynaklardan
sağlamak ve onları yenilenebilir olma özelliklerini koruyacak şekilde kullanmak gereklidir.
Tarımsal faaliyetlerde fosil yakıt tüketimini, olabildiğince çok fonksiyonu gerçekleştirmek üzere,
yerel olarak sağlanabilen, devamlı ve yenilenebilir güneş, rüzgar akarsu gibi enerji kaynaklarını
kullanarak ve hayvan ve bitki artıklarından organik gübre olarak daha çok yararlanarak önemli
miktarda azaltmak gerekmektedir.
4- Toprak erozyonunu ve topraktan besin maddesi kaybını azaltan, suyu muhafaza eden,
yararlı organizmaları teşvik edip zararlıları bastıran biyolojik mücadele yöntemine, rüzgarkıran
yapımına, ekim nöbetine, yeşil gübrelenmeye ve diğer metodlara ağırlık verilmelidir.
5- Devlet yönetimleri çiftçileri sürdürülebilir dünya tarım sistemleri kullanarak talebi
karşılamak üzere yeterince ürün yetiştirmeleri için cesaretlendirmek amacıyla ekonomik teşvikler
sağlayan tarımsal kalkınma politikaları belirlemelidir.
6- Populasyon büyümesi sınırlanmalıdır.
Sürdürülebilir dünya tarımına geçiş, aşağıdaki hususlara uyulması durumunda 10-20 yıl
içinde gerçekleştirilebilir:
1- Devlet yönetimleri, sürdürülebilir dünya tarım yöntemlerini ve ekipmanlarını geliştirmek
üzere araştırma ve geliştirme faaliyetlerine desteklerinin önemli oranda arttırılması,
2- Çiftçilerin sürdürülebilir tarım sisteminin nasıl çalıştığını görebilmeleri için her ülkede
tanıtım projelerinin yürütülmesi,
3- Çiftçiler, kırsalda çalışan elemanlar ve tarım bakanlıklarının personeli için sürdürülebilir
tarım konusunda eğitim programlarının gerçekleştirilmesi,
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 4- Sürdürülebilir dünya tarımı konusunda eğitim yapan okulların açılması,
5- Sürdürülebilir Dünya tarım sistemini uygulayan çiftçiler ve bu tarım sisteminde
kullanılan girdileri üreten firmalar için sübvansiyonlar ve vergi indirimleri sağlamak (Sürdürülebilir
Dünya 301-302).
TÜRKİYE’DE SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR TARIM İÇİN İLKELER VE ÖNERİLER
Tarımda asli üretim faktörleri olarak nitelendirilen toprak ve insan (işgücü) arasında belirli
bir dengenin sağlanması ekonomik etkinlik açısından zorunluluktur(Ören, 2000:142).
Sürdürülebilir tarım politikalarının gerçekleşmesi için yapılması gereken faaliyetler şunlardır:
1- Tarımsal yayım ve eğitim hizmetlerinin yetersizliği nedeniyle; bilinçsiz gübreleme ve
ilaçlama, anız yakma, nadasa bırakma ve topografik yapıya uygun olmayan toprak işleme
faaliyetleri, verimliliği olumsuz yönde etkilemeye devam etmektedir. Bu durumu ortadan
kaldıracak önlemler alınmalıdır.
2- Orman içi yerleşimlerin düzenlenmesi, ormanların korunması ve geliştirilmesine
yönelik olarak, orman-köylü ilişkilerini düzenleyen uygulamalarda, devletin sağlayacağı destek ve
etkin yönlendirme ihtiyacı devam etmektedir.
3- Sürdürülebilir kalkınma ilkesi çerçevesinde yerel potansiyellerin harekete geçirilerek,
gelir ve istihdamın artırılması temel amaç olmalıdır.
4- Kırsal alanda istihdamın artırılması, insangücü kaynaklarının geliştirilmesi, nüfusun
gelirini artırıcı ekonomik faaliyetlerin desteklenmesi, yaşam kalitesinin iyileştirilmesi, etkili
örgütlenme ve her düzeyde katılımcılık önem taşımaktadır. Sivil toplum örgütlerinin kalkınma
sürecine katılımlarını artırıcı düzenlemeler yapılmalıdır.
5-Kırsal altyapı hizmetlerinin yaygınlaştırılması ve etkinliğinin arttırılmasında merkezi
kamu kuruluşları, yerel yönetimler ve sivil toplum örgütlerinin eşgüdüm içerisinde çalışmaları
sağlanmalıdır.
6-Tarıma dayalı sanayi geliştirilmeli, paketleme, muhafaza etme ve pazarlama yöntemleri
konusunda gerekli teknik destek verilmelidir.
8- Sulama projelerinin, arazi toplulaştırma ve tarla içi geliştirme hizmetleri ile birlikte
yürütülmesine önem verilmelidir.
9- Kırsal alanda yaşayan nüfusun gelirini artırmak ve işsizliği azaltmak için yöresel
potansiyeli bulunan; turizm, el sanatları, hayvancılık, dokumacılık gibi alanlarda girişimciler
desteklenmelidir (DPT,71).
10- -Kaynakların etkin kullanımı ilkesi çerçevesinde ekonomik, sosyal, çevresel ve uluslar
arası boyutunu bütün olarak ele alan örgütlü, rekabet gücü yüksek, sürdürülebilir bir tarım
sektörünün oluşturulması temel amaç olmalıdır. Gıda güvenliği ilkesi çerçevesinde artan nüfusun
dengeli ve yeterli beslenmesi esas olmalıdır.
11-Piyasa fiyat oluşumu üzerinde olumsuz etkileri olan ürün fiyatlarına devlet
müdahaleleri yerine, üretimin piyasa koşullarında talebe uygun olarak yönlendirilmesini
52
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 saplayacak politika araçları devreye sokularak, üretici gelir düzeyinin yükseltilmesi ve istikrara
esas alınmalıdır.
12-Üretim maliyetlerini azaltıcı ve teknolojik gelişimi hızlandırıcı tedbirler uygulamaya
konulmalıdır.
13-Tarım politikasının esasları; Dünya Ticaret Örgütü Tarım Anlaşmasının öngördüğü
yükümlülükler ile uluslar arası ticaretteki gelişmeler çerçevesinde belirlenmelidir.
14-İnsan kaynakları başta olmak üzere üretim faktörlerinin daha etkin kullanılması,
verimliliğin artırılması, tarımla ilgili kuruluşlarda kurumsal kapasitenin güçlendirilmesi, kurumsal
hizmet akışında gözlenen sorunların giderilmesi, sektör içi kaynak dağılımında etkinlik ve
rasyonel kullanımın sağlanması, üretici örgütlerinin güçlendirilmesi, tarımsal işletmelerin rekabet
güçlerinin artırılması ve pazarlama ağlarının geliştirilmesine ağırlık verilmelidir.
15-Tarımsal veri tabanını kullanan Tarım Bilgi Sistemi kurulmalıdır (DPT, 1999:56).
KAYNAKLAR
1. DPT, “Türkiye Tarımında Sürdürülebilir Kısa, Orta ve Uzun Dönem Stratejileri,” Ocak1999, Ankara.
2. DPT, “Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı Tarım Alet ve Makinaları Sanayii,” Özel
İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Ankara-2001
3. DPT, “Uzun Vadeli Strateji ve Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı 2001- 2005,”
Ankara-2000.
4. Hayrettin Karaca, “Toprak-Su ve Tarımsal Üretim İlişkileri,” T.C. Tarım ve Köyişleri
Bakanlığı, Tarımın Yeniden Yapılanmasında Toprak-Su Politika Toprak Muhafaza ve
Sulama Politikaları Sempozyumu, 30-31 Ocak 2001, Ankara.
5. Koray Haktanır, “Toprak-Su ve Tarımsal Üretim İlişkileri,” T.C. Tarım ve Köyişleri
Bakanlığı, Tarımın Yeniden Yapılanmasında Toprak-Su Politika Toprak Muhafaza ve
Sulama Politikaları Sempozyumu, 30-31 Ocak 2001, Ankara
6. Koray Haktanır, Cemil Cangir, Çetin Arcak, Sevinç Arcak, “Toprak Kaynakları Ve
Kullanımı, Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisleri Odası, Kongre 2000 Bildiriler Kitabı, Ankara2000.
7. Lütfi Şehsuvaroğlu, “Toprak ve Su Hizmetleri/Toprak ve Su Kaynaklarını Muhafaza
ve Geliştirme: Strateji/Yönetim Eylem Planı,” T.C. Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı,
Tarımın Yeniden Yapılanmasında Toprak-Su Politika Toprak Muhafaza ve Sulama
Politikaları Sempozyumu, 30-31 Ocak 2001, Ankara.
8. M. Necat Ören, Oğuz Yurdakul, Bahri Çevik, Ural Dinç, “Türkiye'de Ulusal Entegre
Projeler Ve Tarımsal Kalkınma, Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisleri Odası, Kongre 2000
Bildiriler Kitabı, Ankara-2000.
9. Mustafa Kaplan, “Tarımsal Üretimde Toprak-Su- Gübre-Bitki İlişkisi,” T.C. Tarım ve
Köyişleri Bakanlığı, Tarımın Yeniden Yapılanmasında Toprak-Su Politika Toprak
Muhafaza ve Sulama Politikaları Sempozyumu, 30-31 Ocak 2001, Ankara.
10. Orhan Doğan, “Toprak-Su-Gübre-Bitki İlişkilerinde Araştırmanın Önemi,” T.C. Tarım
ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı, Tarımın Yeniden Yapılanmasında Toprak-Su Politika Toprak
Muhafaza ve Sulama Politikaları Sempozyumu, 30-31 Ocak 2001, Ankara.
11. S. Semih Dağ, V. Taner Aykaç, Ahmet Gündüz, Murat Kantarcı, Nezih Şişman,
“Türkiye’de Tarım İlaçları Endüstrisi ve Geleceği,” Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisleri Odası,
Kongre 2000 Bildiriler Kitabı, Ankara-2000.
12. Suzan Gök, Nazif Kolankaya, “Tarım Atıklarının Değerlendirilmesi, Uluslar arası
Çevre 87 Sempozyumu, Bildirileri, Başbakanlık ÇevreGenel Müdürlüğü, Boğaziçi
53
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Atık ve Kirlenme Denetimi Araştırma Grubu,
İstanbul-1987.
13. Turhan Günay, “Orman Ormansızlaşma Toprak ve Erozyon”, TEMA Yayınları,
İstanbul-1995.
14. Türkiye Ziraat Odaları Birliği, “Zirai ve İktisadi Rapor 1997-1998,” Ankara-1998.
15. Uğur Büyükburç, Zeki Arkaç, “Meraların Korunma ve Kullanımı:Yeni Mera Yasası
Çerçevesinde Değerlendirmeler” Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisleri Odası, Kongre 2000
Bildiriler Kitabı, Ankara-2000.
54
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES: CASE OF TURKEY
Ali Kemal SAYIN,
Assistant Professor, Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics,
Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations
ABSTRACT
International norms arranging the labor markets ensure job opportunities to job seekers
and try to match suitable labor supply with demand. Meanwhile they seek to sustain the balance
between undertaking needs and employee protection. In one hand there has been a considerable
suspicion around private employment agencies operated for profit making purposes, on the other
hand, it has been realized that public employment offices alone are unable to meet employers’
recruiting needs with employees satisfy best fitted to employers’ needs as a result of global
competition. As a result, ILO norms reflect approaches aimed to deal with supplying employment
services which reflect the trends in historical and social factors. In this paper, the way private
employment agencies in Turkey operate has been examined.
INTRODUCTION
Pace-gained globalization and increased international competition have brought
significant changes in the classical framework of labor law and in its basic concepts in recent
years. Intermediary services for finding jobs and employees have been affected in the process of
change (Tuncay, 2007, p. 66). Intermediary services started in industrialized countries as a public
employment service in the late 19th century as a result of sensitivity about social and economic
effects of unemployment. First initiations in this field were mainly of adjustments towards finding
jobs for job seekers and adjustments for employers towards filling in vacant positions in their
businesses. Public service nature of intermediary activities progressed normally within a system
that integrated employment service and unemployment aids in several countries for a quarter of a
century following the 2nd World War. However, severe economic situation of many countries in
1970s and together with the increase of unemployment, employment services started to be seen
as a tool of official employment policies towards solving unemployment problems or
harmonization policies of labor markets. In the same way, in the economic liberalization and
globalization environment of 1990s employment services have also started to be questioned
(Thuy, 2001, p. xv). As a result, International Labor Organization abandoned the monopoly
understanding of the public and adopted a new approach that led to operation of private
employment agencies in labor markets. ILO’s norms about employment agencies that regulate
the labor market conveys a universal characteristic and were usually accepted following
significant events or crisis that affected the World (Tuncay, 1995, pp. 7-8). Mentioned periods
when norms were accepted are examined it can easily be seen that they reflect social, political
and economic conditions of the time. Secondly, making job opportunities available to masses of
people and matching relevant jobs with their qualifications were aimed at by regulating the
functioning of labor market. Finally, it can be seen that it reflects a search for balance between
the needs of businesses and protection of employees (Erdut, 1998, p. 156). When the order of
acceptance is examined a process that goes from prohibition to liberalization is seen.
55
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 In this study, elimination of state monopoly over employment services by stipulating
private employment agencies and their types and functions in the labor market have been
discussed. Finally, existing regulations in Turkish Labor Law about employment agencies will be
examined.
1. LEGAL BASIS OF EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES
Increasing the level of employment and labor market regulation to avoid employment
started after the end of 1st World War. In the process that started with the foundation of ILO, a
requirement for employment offices occurred in order to reach full employment. Therefore,
employment offices have been subject to both national and international regulations and gained
significant functions since then.
ILO member countries’ approval of a policy that labor was not merchandise kept
employment intermediation out of business area that contributed to a great extent about their
choice regarding the regulation of labor markets. This situation led to the view that recruitment is
a responsibility of the state and private businesses or individuals would not be allowed to have
financial gain by performing this service and these businesses should be restricted not to reach
the governments’ database about vacant positions (ILO, 1994, p. 7).
In the same way, second norm of ILO (act nr 2 about unemployment) after a few months
following the foundation of the Organization supported establishment of public employment
offices and private free employment offices under the authority of central administration.
Although, the act did not provided a strict state monopoly for employment services it accepted
employment services as a public service. With the same date “Unemployment Advisory Act with
the number 1” clearly supports pre-cautions that prohibit establishment of employment agencies
that work on a fee basis or that aimed at profit-making. Therefore member countries’
governments were asked to establish employment offices under a centralized model.
In spite of being more complex, public monopoly policy was confirmed in the further
norms of ILO. Paid Employment Agencies Act dated 1933 which was approved following the
economic crisis in 1929 brought public monopoly in mediating employment services with the aim
of preventing exploitation of the unemployed by private employment agencies. Wide-scaled
unemployment as a result of economic crisis caused the need to expand and improve existing
placing services. For this purpose, issues such as unemployment insurance and social benefit
programs added to the agenda. In the same way, restructuring of services such as education,
placing and unemployment insurance under one body and improvement of relations with the
employee and employer organizations by this three-legged body through advisory committees
were stressed in ILO’s Employment Services Act with the number 88 which was approved in
1948 (IIBK, 1991, p. 2).
Paid Employment Offices Act with the number 96 dated 1949 gave a preference
possibility to member countries so that they could relax government monopoly a bit. According to
this act, each member country that approved the act were required to state their preference
whether they chose 2nd part’s rules that required elimination of paid employment agencies or 3rd
part’s that regulated the paid employment agencies including profit-based employment agencies.
Should 2nd part be approved then strict monopoly implementation by government was accepted.
However, if 3rd part is approved both government employment agencies and private employment
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 agencies were allowed to function in the labor market. Yet, functioning of private and government
employment agencies in the same labor market brought strict audit.
Finally, ILO Act with the number 181 and complementary decision 188 were approved on
June 19, 1997 in ILO General Assembly as it was discussed as 4th agenda subject. By this Act
private employment agencies were permitted to function besides government employment
agencies in order to improve quality of services. The act re-structures private employment
agencies by bringing a new standard suitable for changing circumstances and let them operate
besides public employment agencies. In this scope, collaboration between public employment
agencies and private employment agencies were required in order to reach a more qualified
employment services level. Moreover, moving from the protection of individual and collective
rights against exploitation of employees and job seekers it is stated that no fee will be asked for
the services of private unemployment services.
As it is seen, permission to the services of private employment agencies forms the basis
of Act 181. Furthermore, temporary employment agencies and agencies that provide training and
counseling are also regarded as private employment agencies (Cam, 2008, p. 24).
2. CONCEPT AND TYPES
Private employment agencies are designed as “profit based” or non profit based
establishments that provide intermediary services for free or for a certain fee in labor markets
between job seekers and employee seekers and that provide services under a specific contract
and under the protection of private law (TISK, p. 7). These agencies are defined as real or legal
persons that provide one or more services listed in the act for labor markets independent from
government bodies (Article 1). ILO defines these agencies as private legal organizations that
create services under a contract and in order to have a financial gain by facilitation or
acceleration employment process for individual or legal persons, career improvement or filling in
vacant positions (ILO, 1994, p. 11). The definition stated above is a broader definition of the
concept which covers a number of private organizations in different categories.
Because of the rapidly changing labor market setting it is not always possible to see a
definite private employment agency typology. However, through “Private Employment Agencies
Act 181”, a typology has been formed according to operations of existing employment agencies in
member countries.
2.1. TYPES OF PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES
In the following pages three different types of Private Employment Agencies which are
intermediaries, skilled employee providers, agencies that provide service directly will be
considered (Sayın, 2002, pp. 135-152).
2.1.1. Intermediaries: This type of agencies takes the duty of getting together labor
supply and demand without being a party to employment relations. Intermediaries can be listed
as follows;
Fee-Charging Employment Agencies
Overseas Employment Agencies
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Agencies for the Recruitment and Placement of Foreigners
Executive Search Agencies (Headhunters)
Training and Placement Institutes
2.1.2. Skilled Employee Providers: This type of agencies sign a contract with the
employer and puts employees, who the agency agrees before and keeps, under its organization
into the employers use. It is hiring employees on a lending based work relation for a job of a
different user and for a period limited to the duration that is stayed in user’s workplace. Employer
who lends in this type gets a certain amount of fee from the borrowing employer for the services
provided (Tuncay, 2007, p. 67). It is possible to list these types of agencies as follows;
Temporary Work Agencies –TWA
Staff Leasing Agencies
Job Shops or Cooperatives
Career Management Agencies
Employment Enterprises or “Intermediary Associations”
2.1.3. Agencies That Provide Service Directly
They take the duty of getting together labor supply and demand directly. They also
conduct education and counselling activities while performing this function or they do studies that
put forward current status of businesses. Following types of agencies can be given in this
category.
Outplacement Agencies
Job- Search Consultancies
Personnel Management Consultancies
Employment Advertising Agencies
Computerized Job Database Agencies
3. FUNCTIONS OF PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES
Public employment services are seen as a requirement to establish equality in reaching
labor markets. Besides, public employment services are thought to change functioning of labor
markets into a more efficient level, improve the accuracy of labor market information, prevent
negative effects of structural harmonization programs on the labor demand and finally be useful
beneficiaries of unemployment insurance assistance in countries that they are implemented in
relation to finding jobs as soon as possible for the unemployed (Thuy, p. 26). Furthermore, it is
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 possible to outline benefits of private employment agencies on the labor markets as follows
(Muntz, pp. 10-11);
provides jobs for job seekers and contribute to reduction of long-term unemployment
creates new employment which would not normally exist
can be accepted as a step forward to permanent employment
increases the flexibility of labor markets
increases the ağabeylity of employees for employment
plays a key role by colloborating and establishing partnersihp with the public employment
institutions
assists people with a disability to enter labor markets and increases the level of diversity
in labor
contributes to economic growth and increase of tax revenue
In the same way while unemployment payments fall, tax and social security premiums
paid to government by this employment offices increase. Moreover, it helps reduction of informal
employment.
Furthermore, employment through private employment agencies contributes flexi-security
employment system which is adopted particularly in European Union recently (Tuncay, 2007, p.
75). Flexi-security is a concept that balances profits of employees and employers. Besides vast
number of job opportunities with additional income through part-time and temporary workflexibility, job security and protection for the continuity of obtained rights are established. From the
point of employer’s adaptation to rapid labor change and a market position that will respond to
changing demands will provide flexibility. Besides, increase of competition power in order to have
sustainable growth and employment increase, access to qualified workforce will develop loyalty of
employees (Muntz, 2007, p. 15).
4. PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES IN TURKISH LAW
Although establishment of private employment agencies was prohibited in Turkey, it is a
known fact that some agencies perform the functions of private employment agencies under
“consultancy”. There are 449 registered consultancy company in “Turkey’s Human Resources
and Recruitment Site Guide” as of 2005 (RecruitmenTurkey, 2005) and some of them has been
turned into private employment agencies. Since these companies did not get private employment
agency operation license formerly and perform employee selection they have turned into private
employment agencies in recent years due to audits conducted by the government officials
placement.
4.1. LEGAL STATUS OF PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES
Intermediary services for employment in Turkey were conducted by official employment
agencies until private employment agencies were given permission in June 2004. Today, existing
legal regulations regarding private employment agencies are stated in Labor Law 4857’s article
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 90 dated June 10, 2003, Turkish Labor Placement Office Law with the number 4904 dated July 5,
2003, Private Employment Agencies Directives with the Number 25378 dated February 19, 2004
and Declaration about Private Employment Offices with the number 25541 dated August 2, 2004.
In the 90th article of Labor Law with the title “intermediation to employment” it is stated as
“placement of job seekers to suitable positions and the duty to find suitable employers for various
work performed by work institution and by permitted private employment agencies”. It is quite a
general description. Turkish Labor Placement Office requires strict precautions for the
establishment and operation of private employment agencies. Those who provide the necessary
conditions are granted a three year operation period and will be granted again during the
following terms (article 17). In the declaration about the private employment agencies (article 1) it
is stated that private employment agencies can conduct services such as intermediation to
employment and services for labor markets, employment and human resources. In this scope,
private employment agencies that are regulated to a limited level in Turkish Law can conduct
following activities (Tuncay, 2007, p. 74);
Intermediation activity to find job and employee domestically and abroad
Activities to increase the ability of employment and its efficiency
consultancy activity in businesses human resource fields
activities to find jobs and employees for public establishments and institutions
access to internet to provide services
As it seen functions of private employment agencies are quite restricted. Especially there
is a legal gap about the status of temporary employees job descriptions, their rights and
obligations. Court decisions have not filled this gap yet.
In Turkish Labor Placement Office Law article 19, parallel to ILO’s regulation 181, the rule
of not receiving a fee except for the fee received from employer from the employees on no
condition for the services given. As an exception to this rule in the Private Employment Agencies
Directive (article 15), a fee can be asked from job seekers in some profession categories such as
professional athletes, coaches, trainers, fashion model, and general managers or for positions at
this level.
4. 2. EFFICIENCY OF PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT OFFICES
The number of private employment agencies has increased fast since their operations
were permitted in June, 2004. The number of private employment agency in 2004 was 24. It
reached to 102 in 2005 and 204 in 2006. Increase in the number of agencies continued in 2007
and except for the companies which lost their licence or expired their permitted working period
the number reached to 230 (ISKUR 1, 2008). Compared to this it is seen that affects of
employment offices that try to introduce themselves and in the process of adapting to the sector
on the employment are limited. Only 1.177 (%1) application out of 116.612 application resulted in
placement to a job in 2004. In 2005 10.306 (%1.27) out of 807.830 application were placed by
private employment agencies (ISKUR 2, 2008). Turkish Employment Office, which gives public
employment service, placed 48.902 employee in private sector and if it is considered significance
of private employment agencies can be understood better (Sanal, 2006, p. 132). Applications and
increase in the number of employees placed to jobs are also significant.
60
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Although they have a short history, private employment agencies had a fast
advancement and organized under an association in order to form standards for a healthy growth
and announce their efforts to public and public institutions. Entity started under the name of
“Private Employment Agencies Association” in 2004 has 23 members (OIBD, 2008). It is believed
that this organization will continue its activities in the coming years.
CONCLUSION
Parallel to the developing labor markets, conducting employment activities by state gets
difficult day by day. It is seen that private employment agencies facilitate public’s burden by
contributing to the efforts of employment increase and therefore prevention of unemployment.
Following the need in this field there has been some legal adjustments in Turkey about the
private employment agencies’ activities. However, efficiency of private employment agencies
activities are lowered since they are only given permission to perform intermediary services
between employees and employers. In fact, since employee lending relationship which is a worldwide common activity of private employment agencies that is performed as a gainful activity is not
stressed, in practice these kind of activities are sometimes regarded as fictitious as it matched to
sub-contracting (Tuncay, 2007, p. 75). Although, Act with the number 96 specifies intermediation,
Act with the number 181 specifies giving consultancy and education services as well as employee
lending business as an occupational activity. Although Turkey has not signed Act 181 yet, it has
adjusted its legislation in harmonization to the Act. Should mentioned limitations are eliminated,
efficiency of private employment agencies in labor market will increase to a great extent.
REFERENCES
1. Cam, Erdem: (2008), “Uluslararası Çalışma Örgütü Sözleşmeleri Çerçevesinde Özel
İstihdam Büroları ve Çeşitleri”, Cimento Isveren Review, Vol: 22, Issue: 1, Jan. 2008,
pp. 20-31.
2. Erdut, Zeki: (1998), “İstihdam Politikaları Açısından İş-Kur: İstihdam Hizmetlerinin
Yeniden Örgütlenmesi”, Cumhuriyetin 75. Yılında Endüstri İlişkilerinde ve Emek
Piyasalarının Düzenlenmesinde Devletin Rolü ve İşlevleri, Turkish Industrial
Relations Association (TIRA), III. 3rd International Industrial Congress, Oct. 1998, pp.
149-171.
3. IIBK (Turkey Public Employment Institution) (1991), Batı Avrupa Ülkelerinde
İstihdam Kurumları, IIBK External Relations Working Group Publ., Istanbul.
4. ILO: (1994), The Role of Private Employment Agencies in the Functioning of Labour
Market, International Labour Conference 81st Session, Report VI, International
Labour Office Publ., Geneva.
5. Muntz, Anne-Marie : (2007), “AB Ülkelerinde Dönemsel Çalışma ve Yeni Eğilimler”,
AB Ülkeleri Deneyimleri Işığında Özel İstihdam Aracılığıyla Dönemsel Çalışma
Konulu Sosyal Politika Gündemi Toplantısı, Mövempick Hotel, Sept. 13, 2007,
Istanbul.
6. Sanal, M. Engin: (2006), “Türkiye’de Özel İstihdam Bürolarının Etkinliği”, Mercek
Review, Issue: 44, MESS Publ., Oct. 2006, pp. 131-138.
7. Sayın, Ali Kemal : (2002), Emek Piyasasında Aracılık ve Özel İstihdam Büroları,
Turkey Public Employment Institution Publ., No:324, Ankara.
8. Thuy, Phan; Ellen Hansen, and David Price: (2001), Değişen İşgücü Piyasasında
Kamu İstihdam Hizmeti, (Translation: Metin Çulhaoğlu), International Labor Office
Publ., Ankara.
9. TISK (Turkish Confederation of Employer Associations): (no date), İşgücü
Piyasalarında Özel İstihdam Bürolarının Önemi, TISK Publ., No: 16, Ankara.
10. Tuncay, A. Can: (1995), “Bir Seminerin Ardından: Özel İstihdam Büroları”, Cimento
Isveren Review, Vol: 9, Issue: 1, Jan. 1995, pp. 3-12.
61
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 11. Tuncay, A. Can, and F. Burcu Savaş: (2007), “Özel İstihdam Büroları Gerçek ve
Çağdaş Fonksiyonlarına Artık Kavuşturulmalıdır”, Mercek Review, Issue: 48, MESS
Publ., Oct. 2007, pp. 66-77.
12. ILO: http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp1.htm, (April 03, 2008).
13. ILO: http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/recdisp1.htm, (April 03, 2008).
14. OIBD: http://www.oibd.org/html/uyelerimiz2.html, (March 26, 2008).
15. RecruitmenTurkey:http://www.recruitmenturkey.com/danisman_sirketler/danismanlik_
sirketleri.html, (May 11, 2005).
16. ISKUR
1
(Turkey
Public
Employment
Institution):
http://statik.iskur.gov.tr/tr/istihdam/oib_anatablo.pdf, (March 26, 2008).
17. ISKUR
2
(Turkey
Public
Employment
Institution):
http://www.iskur.gov.tr/LoadExternalPage.aspx?uicode=statozelistihdamburofaal,
(March 26, 2008).
62
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 SOME OPINIONS ON TURKIC HISTORY EDUCATION AND PROBLEMS OF TEACHING
Assistant Professor Dr. Mualla U. YÜCEL
Assistant Professor Dr. İsmail MANGALTEPE
Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, History Department
Fast improvements on Social Sciences make contributions on History science as well as
on all sciences. At construction of a nation, which is the most important factor on establishing
states, identity, history plays an important role. A nation which is willing to see their future, look
forward to the future safely, primarily has to know, understand and interpret its past. As known, all
events has it’s before and after. When events have been studied, explaining it passes through
starting from its past. If a society which is willing to be in the future, to shape its future and to
bring positive viewpoints to the development process of humanity, knows its situation at the time
it exists, what it have done and its contributions, it may make effort on adding on things that it did,
keep its mind broaden. Our aim in this article is that to point some issues at Turkish history
teaching, present faults and sharing information, which we believe that are true, by submitting it to
your benefiting and besides, by explaining defects which we see at Turkish history education and
teaching, to put forward suggestions which will remove these defects. To this end by benefiting
from previous scientific works on History education and teaching, to provide our sights become
rich with deeper and safer information.
Atatürk declared on his sentence in the year 1931 August that; “Writing history is as
important as making history. If writer will not stay faithful to maker, unchanged reality will get
confusing character.” (Iğdemir: 1973, 7-9). At here what is overemphasized is that at history
writing, education and teaching being loyal to history means to write, transmit and tell truly as it
happens. It is certain that development of modern world will be by means of educating young
generation good. Without prejudices, knowing world nations, cultures, beliefs and philosophy of
life only passes through a good history teaching. History must never be an issue of ideologies,
separations and hostility. Around all big world leaders there have been their own History
consultants. English Prime Minister Churchill had 350 consultants and most of them were
historian. As well, after an event England Queen was waiting all kind of reports but the last report
which she had been waiting for was A. Toynbee’s report. (I.U.L.F. History Research Center,
Seminar, First Speeches: 2004). Besides, Chinese having a History Ministry at one period is the
clearest example of this importance. In brief, at creating policy of great states, reports from
historians are carrying a vital value.
After emphasizing history and historians importance, now let’s lay stress upon problems
on transmitting Turkish history to new generation. Basement of sections which are teaching
history could only be occurred at last periods of Ottoman Empire, however they were not at
desired level (Arslan: 2004: 2). Especially after 1940’s, intentional or unintentional, teaching
Turkish history at education was restricted. Instead of Turkish history, whether at primary
education or at universities, old civilizations which were settled in Anatolia, Rome, Byzantium and
European history were taught. Over 40 year old individuals which are living now, are unaware of
and untaught of Middle Asia, Caucasus, Far East, India, Egypt and even Turkic states which were
found at Europe. A few valuable scientists made scientific works on history education and
63
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 teaching. Primarily Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Kafesoğlu and Prof. Dr. Abdülkadir Donuk are one of those.
Both of them have given valuable information about Turkish history education and teaching at
their written articles, have expressed some faults and made zealos workings on correcting them.
First of them is “Age” issue (Kafesoğlu: 1984, 343). There, an Age systems faults, which was not
proper for Turkish history process, and not our scientists but foreign, especially Christian
scientists had suggested, was spotted. According to this age system;
Antiquity: Begins from ancient times and ends at West Rome Empire’s downfall at 476.
Middle Ages: Includes a period which begins from 476 and ends at Turk’s conquest of
Istanbul at 1453.
New Ages: Period of time which begins from 1453 and ends at French revolution at 1789.
Close Ages: Includes a period from 1789 to nowadays.
Western countries have realized their syllabus according to this system. Base of this
syllabus, which we have acknowledged exactly, is consisting of, for antiquity Akkad, Assyria,
Babel, Urartu and Grecian Rome history and culture. As being logical to give these lessons in
European countries, it is wrong to giving those in Turkey. Of course in history teaching all worlds’
history must be given and cultural, social structures must be explored. Nations can only, improve
relationships with others and mount it on a healthy base, share own pains, pleasures with them,
solve their acting and thinking systematic and take politic and diplomatic steps according to that
by knowing the history of other countries. The issue which may be laid stressed upon
momentously is that, being ignored of first terms of Turkish history. Some great nations of our
history, which have effected Europe and even world history, were facient of important progresses
like big immigrations, redrawing borders, technology transfer – especially gun producing and
making Western to meet first time with new guns (Maurice’s Strategicon, 1984), like European
and Asian Hun Empire, Avar Khaganate, Gokturk Emperorship, Uyghur Empire, Turgishes,
Tabgach, Karluk and Kirghiz Empires have not been taught sufficiently.
Again according to above mentioned age system, in Middle Age, great Turk-Islamic
states which only were founded after acknowledging Islam by Turks, like Karakhanids,
Ghaznavids, Selduks, Anatolian Seljuks, Khwarezm-Shahs, Anatolian Seigniories and
Mainseigniories were been told, however Oghuz-Yabgu State, Avars, Khazars, Pechenegs, Uzs
(Oghuz Turks), Sabars (Sabirs), Cuman-Kypchaks, Tuna (Danube) and Bulgarian States were
not been told. At Modern Age period only Ottoman Empire was educated to students but Turkic
state and communities which were founded in Turkistan, China, India and Russia at this age were
unfortunately ignored. The situation is not differs at Close Ages and last ages. Turk Republics
which have got their independency since 1990 haven’t entered syllabus program yet at desired
levels.
What is the standard of telling histories which did not belong to us: Politic and social
relation with these states? Is a blood relation, which do not exists, willing to be established? Their
contribution to Turkic history? Their effect on Turkic organization or structure? Neighborhood
connection which age long with Turkish states? Because of having the most economic connection
with? Because of being the most strive against? Or the logic of making them aware of their own
history? Respond of all of these questions might be no. Because the most politic and social
relation Turkic people established with are Chinese, Russian and Mongolian nations. Of course,
whether before Islam or after adopting Islam periods, for long years Turkic people had
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 relationship with Byzantium, which have broad place in our syllabus. Additionally, at 1943’s even
Byzantium Art Chair was thought to be established (Demirkent: 2004, 48). However there is not
any common link between Byzantium and Turkic, neither racial nor religious. It is known that
Turkic states had their own social structure, military organization. Besides it is a proved reality
that Byzantium Empire’s war tactics and instruments had been affected from Turkic. Again our
longest neighborhoods were with Russian, Arabic and Chinese. Shortly telling at length Hittite,
Assyria, Phrygia, Sumer, Grecian-Rome history, which are not belong to us, in Turkish education
system, will bring together some objections in the future. Conquered Anatolian lands at 1071 had
become Turkish and Muslim. It has been 1000 years since Turk made this lands homeland. At
new generation’s minds there might be inquiries by information which’s mental structure has not
settled yet, indiscriminate right-wrong, open affective and which can settle at subconscious.
There might be students which have been affected from western writer-illustrators which argue
that Anatolia did not belong to us before, we made this lands homeland afterwards. Who can
argue that some values, within an ideo systematic which is named by modern culture as global
and by thinking that with expressions like, the world is now a village, world peace, world
brotherhood, target groups to be put to sleep, would not be damaged. It must be known that
values which new generation maybe claims with goodwill as “World inheritance” are actually is a
part of a big play and in the name of science, in the name of humanism someone would have
destructive attitudes to nations subconscious attainment. Asserted issue here is absolutely never
means not to teach, know, and research histories of peoples which were lived in Anatolia before
us. What is important is why consciously Turkish states and Turkish communities have been
ignored, brushed aside and could not gets its place enough in lesson syllabuses rather than
teaching and transmitting these to new generation. If a sociological research have been
performed now in Turkey, it would be seen that most of the people which have named as
intellectual, have more or less information about Grecian-Rome and Byzantium states history,
culture and architecture. However it will become apparent that no one have information about
European Hun Empire which has been settled in the middle of Europe, where is now Hungary
lands and ruled and established many great states for 300 years in Balkans, Avar Khaganat,
Pecheneg and Cuman-Kypchak and their marks. In the same way who and how much has
information about Orkhun monuments which are masterpieces of Turkic culture and civilization at
Middle Asia.
We think that it is useful to look at the issue aversely. We have chance to investigate
Western countries – especially France- school syllabuses. 99 percent of the taught history is the
history which is occurred by Christian world. Historical information about Turkic and Islamic world
is little or no. However, it is impossible to explain IV-X th century European history with ignoring
Turkic and Muslims. All marks of Andalusia State which can still be seen in Spain, always finding
a new item of Avar Khaganate at the archaeological diggings which were made at Danube river
basin in Hungary, reveals this reality in all its nakedness. Such is that almost all countries which
are creating European Geography have their own side which they must explain relationship with
Turkic in their history. Although these are known, our history have not been showed in syllabus of
Western countries and this rich history has been ignored. On the other hand teaching GrecianRoman-Byzantium history and civilization in all stages of Turkish education system is in progress.
These lessons credit is reaching to average 20 hours in universities history section (Donuk: 2004,
205). Besides here I would like to mention an issue. Because of not damaging historical artifacts
–most of them belongs to Byzantium period- which have found during workings for relieving
transport in Istanbul, subway routes have been changed and by this sensitive posture against
physical culture remainings of lands, which we live, have been presented. However do same
posture has presented in Europe against Turkish work of arts? When European intellectuals says
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 that they claim to history, if the issue is about Turkish work of arts they could not present same
posture, and more painful is that to target them. Unfortunately the best example is for us to see
how our architectural work of arts at Bosnia Herzegovina had become targets for bombs during
Serbian genocide, for us to watch this destruction from TV. It is of course a rightful expectation of
this nation to hear this double standards interpretation from politic and social scientists who have
note given enough appreciate to Turkish history as much as it deserves.
Prof. Dr. Abdülkadir Donuk has put forth one of the indicators of about not knowing and
teaching our history enough in one of his articles. This indicator is an issue which is wrong known
and which is still used as sixteen stars on Presidency of Republics emblem which represent
Turkish States. It has been expressed that 16 stars represent Turkish states established in
history. However researches presented that there were more than a hundred states established
by Turkish (Donuk: 1984, 148). Their founding geography, names, monarchies and histories are
available. Even then this 16 stared unknown emblem has still been used. On the other side flags
which are alleged that they belong to these states are imaginary (Donuk: 2004, 213). Only wolf
headed flag which belongs to Göktürks, flag which includes arrow and bow belongs to Seljuks
and flag with moon and star which belongs to Ottoman Empire are true, unfortunately rest are
imaginary. On the other hand it is engrossing that one of the most distinguished institutes, Turkish
History Institute (THI) (Türk Tarih Kurumu), approves and uses these information. We would like
to present exactly same chart about Turkic states which was taken from THI’s website.
Turkish States in History
B.C. 204 ‐ A.C. 216 Great Hun Empire‐ Büyük Hun İmparatorluğu 48 – 216 West Hun Empire‐ Batı Hun İmparatorluğu 375 – 454 European Hun İmparatorluğu Empire‐
Avrupa 420 – 562 Ak Hun Empire‐ Ak Hun İmparatorluğu 552 – 743 Gokturk Empire‐ Göktürk İmparatorluğu 565 – 803 Avar Empire‐ Avar İmparatorğu 651 – 983 Khazar Empire‐ Hazar İmparatorluğu 744 – 1335 Uyghur State‐ Uygur Devleti 940 – 1040 Karakhanids State‐ Karahanlılar Devleti 963 – 1183 Ghaznavids State‐ Gazneliler Devleti Hun 66
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 1040 – 1157 Great Seljuks Empire‐ Büyük Selçuklu İmp. 1157 – 1231 Khwarezm‐Shahs State‐ Harizmşahlar Devleti 1236 – 1502 Golden Horde State‐ Altınordu Devleti 1368 – 1501 Great Timur İmparatorluğu Empire‐
Büyük Timur 1526 – 1856 Babur Empire‐ Babür İmparatorluğu 1299 – 1922 Ottoman Empire‐ Osmanlı İmparatorluğu 1923 ‐ Turkish Republic State‐ Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devleti Under this table this note has been inserted: “This 16 stars on the emblem of T.R.
Presidency; symbolizes 16 great Turkish Empire in history, the sun in the middle symbolizes
Turkish Republic State”. (http://www.ttk.org.tr/index.php?Page=Sayfa&No=226, 8 May 2008).
Also here there is some contradictions. One side it is said as 16 great Turkish empires other side
by saying “Uyghur State, Karakhanids State, Ghaznavid State, Golden Horde State…” to the
states on the list, “Empire and State” accounted as same. Countries formal History Institute’s web
site must contain more consistent information, it is necessary for them to act more sensitive on
giving correct and illuminating information. Indeed Turkish nation’s expectation is at the same
way.
Even these issues have been expressed by sensitive scientists, not correcting them is
assumed as an injustice to workings and history. First of all at states equilibrium, importance of
symbols must be remembered, symbols which have been used by states must be handled and
corrected. Only by this we can begin to learn and teach our history.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Previous terms must be examined systematically in an entirety. There is no question
of a period in our 2600 year history which Turkish has been disappeared, or could not establish a
state. It is clear that there is continuity on a nation’s culture, civilization, politic and social
structure, military organization, which can create politic formations on 3 continents. Every state’s
inner dynamics must be examined separately and then their coactions and similarities with
previous and following states must be presented. Afterwards all Turkish States common points,
continuities, being organized, military and social structures reflection until today must be
researched. At second step, Turkish frame of mind, principles, targets and their contribution on
our nation and all mankind must be pointed out. It must be seen that frame of mind which is
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 expressed as Turkish world dominance idea and Turk nation’s eternity understanding are starting
from pre Islamic Turks and continuing till today (Turan: 1993).
2. For scientists to know at least one western language and one source language,
staying and making researches for particular periods at abroad must be provided.
3. Syllables must be revised. All world states history, civilization and culture must be
explained briefly. If you think that even in historical sections no Chinese history, Japanese history
(Yildiz: 2003/2, 183), Russian history, American history, African history have been teach, our
deficiencies would appear. At 21st century, without knowing these countries, which have played
roles, positive or negative on world’s destiny, past, culture, it will be impossible to understand,
evaluate today and make ourselves to form ideas about future.
4. At Turkish history teaching, tolerance and unifying skills must be kept on foreground.
Indeed, it is inevitable that we are one of the rare countries which can stuff these conceptions
from our ancient history to our present day. At Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe
approved report in 31 October 2001 as
21st Century Europe’s history education
Recommendation
(http://www.coe.int/t/e/cultural_cooperation/education/history_teaching/history_in_the_20th_centu
ry/recommendation/RecommandationTurkish.asp, 9 May 2008), prejudices must be removed,
grudge and hate words must be purified from lesson books. It is important in terms of sincerity
that these suggestion makers must start from their own syllabuses.
5. Basic values as peace, agreement, human rights, democracy, respect to different
ideas, beliefs, habits must be teach.
6. The reason why being afraid of Turks in Europe is not because of Turks being less
modernized than them. This fear is completely because of them having more powerful armies in
military way. It must be ensured that these issues must take their place in local and foreign
history books.
7. At primary, secondary school and universities, history lesson must be taught as
theoretical and practical.
8. At Universities History sections there must be humanistic values, human rights and
legal named lesson. By teaching these values in history, it is targeted to avoid humanity crimes.
9. It must be asserted that at contentious, sensitive, politic, issues and such that might
be a politic subject between nations, both sides must be objective, and sides must not apply to
alterations, diversions. Again these issues must be evaluated in historical process and at
constructing future, putting forward of unifying facts rather than dividing ones must be expressed.
It will be useful that for historians to eliminate barriers which hinder seeing future and make
disambiguated (Hobsbawm: 1999, 72) interpretations.
10. About peaceful history, applying I. Kafesoğlu’s suggested “At history books,
nationalism, which forwards nations to unnecessary proud and chauvinism, must be abandoned,
instead it is necessary to adopt patriotism which means for everyone to love their own nation and
works to develop it.” principle must be our fact (Kafesoğlu: 1965).
11. Individual research must be supported. Especially student’s attention could be
attracted by local information and pedigree. Primarily make students to research about cities
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 which they live in and if there is pedigree they must be made to research for finding it out.
Afterwards it must be wanted from student to make a study about an issue which he is curious
about and make a presentation about it.
12. Student, after results of his research, might be able to defend his applications which
he has done as a Khan or a Sultan, might be able to criticize heavy taxes as a merchant, might
be able to inquire why he is staying behind at and why he is deprive of education as a villager,
might be able to ask why he could not go into the army as a foreigner, might defend Islamic rules
as a Muslim judge, might be able to say and inquire killing brother is an obligatory to apply for
high benefits of the State as a monarch, he might be able to defend this rule by means of looking
it reverse and try to understand, might be able to criticize government as an intellectual, if the
student is female she might investigate and criticize concubine system with the adjective of
woman. We can duplicate these examples. As a result student must be in the history and share
his opinions with his unusual working. Thus making students to construct information by
themselves must be verified and target must be to make them pass to active learning from
passive learning (Candan: 2005, 331).
13. Educator, must take out walking at the labyrinth of future as much as he takes out
walking students at deeps of past.
14. Lecturer must not make students to take notes by means of reading from a book in
lessons. Student can already get that book someway. If we think that at internet age any
information is available in minutes, student can find easily that issues which educator makes
them to write. This dictation method is useless except making student get bored, takes a dislike to
and reduces his concern from lesson.
15. Modern technology equipments, especially barcovision should be used as an
assistant item and by that concern must be occurred.
16. Visual items must be used at all lessons, map, photograph (Akbaba: 2005,188), a
video of an animated event, a war instrument which has been used in history, art instruments,
instruments of monarch, will make student to participate lesson lively and keeps his concern
fresh.
17. Researches have shown that student can only pay attention to the lesson mostly 20
minutes. So these twenty minutes must be taken into account and after this minute student must
be made to rest even for a while and pays his attention again to the lesson by telling a saga,
legend, epic, or a lived event which supports issue.
18. At primary and secondary schools “History Lab” must be established and lessons
might be done there.
19. By drawing picture, schema and sketches on books, it must be verified to make
students illustrate the event on his mind and make him feel as they were inside of that event. This
can also make lessons more enjoyable and makes this event to take a deeper place in memory.
20. Visiting museums and making lessons there, so being as much as at those places is
important. Students must be helped with being at the place which event occurs, describing that
event, pushing students imaginary, determining that event from different sides and with the
question of “What would you do if you were there?” to make students get the ability of
strategically thinking. Interpretations must be done about the effect, benefit and damage of the
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 location to defeat or to victory. For example while teaching Fatih’s conquer of Istanbul at schools
in Istanbul, Topkapi, Golden Horn, Kasimpasha must be traveled and lesson should be told there.
Besides Fatih’s strategy must be opened to discussion and students must be helped to
understand the event better. If we should mention one of our important deficiency is that at
National History book, which has been taught for long years as a lesson book, it written that Fatih
Sultan Mehmet has invited famous architect and sculptor Michelangelo to Istanbul for building a
bridge from Sarayburnu to Uskudar, but he did not come because of Pope did not let him to go.
However it is known that when Fatih died at 1481, Michelangelo was a 6 year old child (Yildiz:
2003/2, 184). It is a necessary for this reason to prepare these books, which will be taught at
educational institutes, from a council which consists of academicians.
21. At history sections foreign languages must be taught as optional, especially source
languages must be asserted. It is absolute that our feeling of need to Armenian knowing
specialists if we think about unfounded genocide claims which are occupying us for long times as
a state.
22. Enough information about helper sciences to history (Geography, Moneyscience,
Philosophy, Sociology, etc.) must be given.
23. Especially National History Conscious must be given.
24. Students must be made to well understand of the philosophy and viewpoint of History
science.
INFORMING PUBLIC
1. Nowadays when you say history at minds a lesson which is useless, full of
memorizing flashes. Works for removing this impression must be done.
2. About great events on history, their location must be determined; information must be
given with hanged signboards. For instance how many people know the exact location of
Conquest, at where crafts went to shore, are plans of Conquest have been taken out? The
answer of this question does not behoove to the event which causes an ending of an age and
make begin another. All steps and routes of the Conquest must be determined and announced to
public and publics’ conscious of history must be built by this. It will be interesting for a foreigner to
visit route of Fatih’s crafts.
3. It is unfortunately unknown that how historical districts, main roads and streets have
been constituted, where they got their names from. How many people who live in there know
where Baghdad Street gets its name from? This information must be written on hanged
signboards.
4. Historical person’s life and works must be introduced by means of billboards.
5. It must become an obligatory to publish public intended cultural programs on means
of communication, especially on state on private TV channels once for week, when ratings are
high. Especially building historical conscious by history programs may verify knowing history
correct.
6. At movie sector, history based movies, documentaries must be shot.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 7. At a research interest on historical novels has been determined. For this reason
educators must be supported by Ministry of Education and Culture to write historical novels
(Simsek: 2006).
8. Work of arts which are belonging to Turkish Culture and Civilization must be copied
and History parks at everywhere in Turkey (Like Miniaturk) must be established.
We think that Ataturk’s revolutions will be absent unless an evolution will be done on
Turkish education and teaching, its applications and making history alive. For this reason we are
expecting from intelligence historians and conviction leaders to meet urgently and revise Turkish
history education and teaching, present it to public with a new syllabus and method; to complete
homeland, nation, flag, culture, civilization, tolerance and ideal concepts and explain precautions
and methods for new generation to make them to have an information hardware consisting
conscious history mind.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abdulkadir Donuk, “Tarih Eğitim-Öğretimi’nde Görülen Eksik ve Yanlışlıklarımız”,
Cumhuriyetin 80. Yılında Üniversitelerde Tarih Öğrenimi, Araştırmaları ve Yayınları
Semineri, 16–17 Aralık 2003, İstanbul 2004, pp. 201–232. (“Our Deficiency and Faults on
History Education-Teaching”, Seminar of History Learning, Researches and Publications at
Universities at 80.th Anniversary of Republic.)
2. Abdulkadir Donuk, “Tarihte 16 Türk Devleti Mes’elesi ve Türk Devletinin Karakteri”, Türk
Kültürü, Sayı 251, Yıl XXII, Mart 1984, pp. 145–161. (“Isssue of 16 Turkish States on History
and Character of Turkic State”, Turkish Culture, Issue 251, Year XXII, March ‘84, p. 145161.)
3. Ahmet Sait Candan, “Üstbilişsel Kuram ve Tarih Öğretimi”, Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi,
Ekim 2005, Cilt:13, No:2, pp. 327–332. (“Overcognitive Theory and History Teaching”,
Kastamonu Education Magazine, October 2005, Volume: 13, No: 2, 327-332.)
4. Ahmet Simsek, “Bir Öğretim Materyali Olarak Tarihsel Roman’a Yönelik Öğrenci ve
Öğretmen Görüşleri”, The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET,
October 2006, ISSN: 1303-6521, Volume 5, Issue 4, Article 10. (“Student and Teacher
Sights Directed to History Novel as a Teaching Item”)
5. Ali Arslan, “Türkiye’de Tarih Bölümünün Kuruluşu”, Cumhuriyetin 80. Yılında
Üniversitelerde Tarih Öğrenimi, Araştırmaları ve Yayınları Semineri, 16–17 Aralık 2003,
İstanbul 2004, pp. 1–21. (“Foundation of History Section in Turkey”, Seminar of History
Learning, Researches and Publications at Universities at 80.th Anniversary of Republic)
6. Bulent Akbaba, “Tarih Öğretiminde Fotoğraf Kullanımı”, Gazi Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim
Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 6, Sayı 1 (2005), pp. 185–197. (“Using Photograph at History
Teaching”, Gazi University Kirsehir Education Faculty Magazine, Volume 6, Issue 1)
7. Eric Hobsbawm, Tarih Üzerine, Çev: Osman Akınhay, Bilim ve Sanat, Ankara 1999. (On
History, Translation: Osman Akinhay)
8. http://www.coe.int/t/e/cultural_cooperation/education/history_teaching/history_in_the_20t
h_century/recommendation/RecommandationTurkish.asp, 9 May 2008.
71
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 9. http://www.ttk.org.tr/index.php?Page=Sayfa&No=226, 8 May 2008
10. Isın Demirkent, “İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü’nde Bizans
Devleti Tarihi Dersleri”, Cumhuriyetin 80. Yılında Üniversitelerde Tarih Öğrenimi,
Araştırmaları ve Yayınları Semineri, 16–17 Aralık 2003, İstanbul 2004, pp. 47-54.
(“Byzantium State History Lessons at Istanbul University Literature Faculty History Section”,
Seminar of History Learning, Researches and Publications at Universities at 80.th
Anniversary of Republic)
11. Ibrahim Kafesoglu, “Danimarka’da Toplanan Tarih Kongresi” Türk Kültürü, Yıl III, Sayı
36, 1965. (“History Congress at Denmark”)
12. Ibrahim Kafesoglu, “Türk Tarihinde Çağlar Mes’elesi”, Türk Kültürü, Sayı 254, Haziran
1984, Ankara, pp. 343–354. (“Ages Issue on Turkish History”)
13. Maurice, Strategicon, Trans: G.T. Dennis, Pennsylvania 1984.
14. Osman Turan, Türk Cihân Hâkimiyeti Mefkûresi Târihi, Cilt 1-2, Boğaziçi Yay., İstanbul
1993. (History of Turkish World Domination Ideal, Volume 1-2 Bogazici Publishing, Istanbul)
15. Ozgur Yildiz, “Türkiye’de Tarih Öğretiminin Sorunları ve Çağdaş Çözüm Önerileri”,
Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı 15, Yıl 2003/2 (181–190).
(“Teaching Problems of History in Turkey and Modern Solution Suggestions”)
16. Ulug Igdemir, Cumhuriyetin 50. Yılında Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara 1973. (Turkish
History Institute at 50th Anniversary of Republic)
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 АДАМ БАЛАСЫНЫН ИЧКИ ДҮЙНӨСҮ
Орозбек Ч. Кожогулов канд.физ.-мат.наук, доцент.
Международный Университет «Ататюрк-Алатоо»
Ички дүйнө бул адамдын жүрөгү, акылы, ички сезими, руху, ойу, ыйманы, ниети,
пейли, адилеттүүлүгү, ынсабы, напсиси, ичинин кенендиги, тарлыгы ж.б. Адамдын ички
дүйнөсү таза жана адамкерчиликтүү болуш керек. Киши ичинде «Адам» деген сөздү чоң
тамга менен баштап, дайыма бардык нерселерден өйдө көрүп, адамдын көңүлүн
калтырбашы тийиш. Инсандын ички дүйнөсү дайыма ачык, жарык болуп, ар түрдүү жакшы
ойлор, тилектер жана жасаган иштер менен мол болушу керек. Тилекке каршы баардык
адамдардын ички дүйнөсү жогоркуда жазылгандай эмес, анын ички дүйнөсүнүн, ойлорунун
жаман жана караңгы жактары да болот. Бул жерде Сулайман падышанын накыл
сөздөрүнөн бир мисал келтирсе болот: «Суу адамдын жүзүн чагылтат, ички ойлору өзүн
чагылтат».
Адамдын сырткы дүйнөсү, жасаган иштери анын ички дүйнөсү менен тыгыз
байланыштуу. Инсандын ички дүйнөсү таза болсо, анын турмушка көз карашы, жасаган
иштери, кыймыл-аракеттери таза жана туура, сүйлөгөн сөздөрү да мээримдүү, маанилүү
жана жагымдуу болот.
Турмушта туура жашаш үчүн адам баласы биринчи ирет ички дүйнөсүнүн жаман
жактары менен күрөшүш керек. Ички дүйнөсүн жеңсе, ар түрдүү жаман нерселерден жана
ойлордон, кыймыл-аракеттерден тазаласа гана жакшы иштерди жасайт. Кээ бир кишилер
жакшы иштерди чын жүрөктөн жасабай жасалма түрдө жасашы да мүмкүн, бирок ал
инсандын жасаган иштери, кыймыл-аракеттери дайыма эле туура болбойт, көпчүлүк учурда
ички дүйнөсүндөгү туура эмес иштерди жасашат. Демек, адам баласы биринчи ирет ички
дүйнөсүн жаман ойлордон иштерден тазалап, андан кийин сырткы дүйнөсүндө жасаган
иштерин жакшы жагына оңдош керек.
Адамдын турмушу өтө татаал жана көп багыттан турат, ошондуктан адамдын ички
дүйнөсү да ар түрдүү багытта болот. Кишилердин ички дүйнөсү бардык тармактар боюнча
туурa эмес боло бербейт. Кээ бир багыттар боюнча туура болсо, ал эми башка багыттар
боюнча туура эмес болушу мүмкүн. Адам баласы өзүнүн ички дүйнөсүн турмуштун бардык
багыттары боюнча таза кылууга аракет жасаш керек.
Адамдардын ички дүйнөсү жана жасаган иштери жөнүндө турмуштан бир мисал
келтирейин. Бир миллионердин эки жакшы жолдошу бар экен. Бир жолдошунун
миллионерге ички дүйнөсү таза, ак экен(1-жолдошу). Экинчи жолдошунун ички дүйнөсү
кара экен(2-жолдошу). Миллионердин үйүндө төмөнкүдөй окуя болот. Бир ууру
миллионердин үйүндөгү дүнүйөсүн уурдап жаткан учурда, анын аялы күйөсүнүн 2-жолдошу
менен келип калат. Ал экөөнүн мурунтан бери көңүлдөрү жакын экен. Ууру жашынып калат.
Аял кроватка жатканда ээрчитип келген кишиси перчатка кийип алып, аялды муунтуп
өлтүрөт. Ошол учурда эшиктин коңгуроосу чыңгырайт, өлтүргөн киши коркуп кетип, эшикти
ачып өзү жашынып калат. Сырттан келген киши үйгө киргенде ал акырын көрүнбөй чыгып
кетип калат. Жаңы келген киши миллионердин 1-жолдошу болот, аялдын кроватта
жатканын көрүп уктап жаткан экен деп ойготот. Аял ойгонбойт бетин кармаса жылуу. Бул
катуу уктап калганбы, жээ маспы деп мойнунан кармап, башын өйдө көтөрөт. Көрсө аял
73
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 өлүп калган экен. Ал киши да коркуп кетип качып кетет, бирок ал кишини бир кошунасы
чыгып баратканда көрүп калыптыр. Үйдүн ичинде болгон иштердин баарысын ууру көрөт.
Андан кийин ал өзүнө керектүү буюмдарды көтөрүп алып кетип калат. өлгөн аялдын
жанында өлтүргөн кишинин бетаарчысы түшүп калган экен. Ууру чыгып баратып
бетаарчыны целефанга ороп, ала кетет. Кийин сот болот. Сотто миллионердин 1-жолдошу
15 жылга кесилет, себеби кошунасы мен бул кишини ошол убакытта көргөм деп, күбө
болот. Ал эми 2-жолдошу да сот учурунда өлгөн аялдын күйөөсүнүн жанында отуруп,
жолдошуна көңүл айтып, кошо кайгырып, капаланып отурат. Соттун башынан аягына чейин
ууру да катышат, ушулардын баарысын көрөт, угат.
Арадан бир ай өтөт. Ууру көп ойлонуп, өзүнүн турмушун, жасаган иштерин,
билгендерин, көргөндөрүн жана уккандарын анализдеп аягында сотко келип, бардык
чындыкты айтып берет. Өлтүргөн киши миллионердин 2-жолдошу экендиги аныкталат. Ал
жолдошунун байып кеткенин көрө албай анын дүнүйөсүн уурдайын деп, аялы менен жакын
мамиле түзө баштайт. 2-жолдошунун ичи тар, өтө шум, ач көз, кара мүртөз жаман киши
экен. Ал аялды өлтүргөн учурда эшиктин коңгуроосу чыңгырап, үйүндөгү дүнүйөлөрүн
уурдаганга үлгүрө албай, көрүнбөй үйдөн чыгып, качып кетет. Экинчи сот болуп,
миллионердин 2-жолдошун атууга берет. Сотто мен күнөөлүмүн, уурумун бул уурдаган
буюмдарды кайра берем дейт. Бирок өлгөн аялдын күйөөсү ууруга ыраазы болуп, мен
алардын жарымын сизге берем деп сотто айтат. Анда ууру, мен чындыкты айтканга чейин
абдан көп ойлондум, мындан ары ачка өлсөм да ууру кылбайм, арам ишке барбайм деп
өзүмө сөз бердим. Сиздин дүнүйөңүздүн ичинде бирөөнүн акысын жеп тапкан дүнүйөлөр да
бар болушу мүмкүн, ошондуктан мен албайм деп отказ берет. Аягында миллионер ууруну
өзүнө жумушка алат.
Урматтуу окурмандар! Бул кишилердин ички дүйнөлөрүн, жасаган иштерин өзүңөр
талдагыла.
Элдерде илгертен калган макал бар «Адам аласы ичинде, мал аласы тышында»
деген. Адамдын ички дүйнөсүнүн тазалыгын, актыгын жана каралыгын билиш кыйын,
аларды кишинин жасаган иштери аркылуу гана билүүгө болот. Азырынча кишинин ички
дүйнөсүн аныктап, компьютерге жазып алган прибор жок. Ошол себептен адамдын ички
дүйнөсү тазабы, жакшы же жаман кишиби билиш кыйын, аны үчүн көп жыл жолдош болуп
байкаш керек. Экинчиден ал инсандын жаман же жакшы экендигин ага сын берген кишинин
өзүнүн ички дүйнөсү
жана адамга жасаган мамилеси,
иштери менен да тыгыз
байланыштуу болот. Мисал үчүн мага бирөө бул же тигил киши «жаман» десе, менин оюма
чынында ал «жаман» экен деген пикир келбейт, тескерисинче өзү кандай адам болду экен
деген ой кетет. Эки адам бири-бирине сын беришсе, менимче алардын турмушка көз
караштары бири-бирине жакын болуп, ички дүйнөлөрү таза болуш керек, ошондо гана
алардын бири-бирине берген сындары чындыкка жакын болот жана алар бекем жолдош
боло алышат.
Эми адамдын ички дүйнөсүнүн кеңдиги жана тарлыгы жөнүндө. Адамдын ички
дүйнөсүнүн кеңдиги же тарлыгы кишинин башка бирөөнүн турмушуна, эмгекчилдигине,
байлыгына, кызматына, аброюна, жүрүш турушуна, маданиятына, инсандарга жасаган
мамилелерине, экономикалык жана башка турмуштагы ар түрдүү проблемаларга көз
карашы жана аларды чечиши менен байланыштуу. Ички дүйнөсү тар кишилер башка
бирөөлөрдүн жетишкенин көрө албайт, ичи «күйүшү» да мүмкүн, ал кишинин байлыгы,
даражасы менден ашып кетпесе экен деп, кээ бир учурларда ага тоскоолдук, кастык иштер
жасашы да мүмкүн. Мындай кишилер негизинен өзүмчүл болушат да бардык иштерди
74
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 өзүнүн кызыкчылыгы үчүн жасашат. Башка кишилердин жетишкендерин жакшы кабыл
алууга ичинде орун калбай калат, себеби ичи тар.
Тескерисинче ичи кенен кишилер байлык элде болсо экен, элдер жакшы жашаса
экен деп, алардын ичинде мен да жакшы жашайын деп аракет жасашат жана тилешет, эл
үчүн ак ниет менен кызмат кылышат. Мындай кишилер өзүнүн турмушу үчүн да адилет
иштер жасашат, башкаларга жардам беришет. Буларды ичи кенен адамкерчиликтүү
инсандар дейбиз.
Жараткан адамдын ички дүйнөсүн кенен, рухун таза жана адамкерчиликтүү болсун
деп жараткан. Алла Таалага жана анын пенделерине карата болгон милдеттерибизди
аткара билгидей кылып жараткан. Бири-бирин сыйлоо, жакшы мамиле жасоо жана жардам
берүү кишилердин негизги милдеттеринин бири. Бирок адамдар турмуштагы ар кандай
туура эмес шарттардын негизинде өзгөрүлүп, кээ бир маселелер боюнча ичтери тар болуп
кетиши мүмкүн. Өз ишин туура жолго койгон, Жаратканга жана анын жараткандарына
карата өзүнүн баардык милдеттерин сезип, билип жана аларды эч кынтыксыз аткарган, бул
дүйнөдөгү жашоосу менен жүрүш-турушуна ыйманынын негизинде, ахлак жолу менен
жүргөндөр таалайлуу инсандар.
Дагы бир айтып кете турган пикир элде дайыма айтылып келген сөз бар «жүрөк эч
качан алдабайт» деген. Жүрөктөн чыккан сөз чындыкты билдирип, адилет өкүм чыгарат.
Жүрөк - акылдын кан тамыры, анын согушу бизди дайыма жакшы-жамандан кабардар
кылып, бири-биринен ажырата биле алат. Жүрөктүн ыракатта болуусун кааласаң ар дайым
дилиң таза, ак ниетте болуп, жакшы иштерди жаса. Эгерде сөз жүрөктөн чыкса, ошол
замат угуучунун дилине кыт куйгандай таасир этет, ал эми тил учунан чыккан сөз кулак
учунда калат.
Кымбаттуу окурмандар силер жакшы билесиңер, адамзаттын турмушунда ар түрдүү
жакшы, жаман нерселер жана окуялар болот. Булардын пайда болуш себебин билиш үчүн
алардын келип чыккан жерин, булагын жана андан кийинки таасирин билиш керек. Мисалы
арак ичкен жаман. Эмне үчүн арак жаман, себеби аны даярдаган учурда адамдын нервине,
акылына таасир эте турган нерселерден жасайт. Ошондуктан аракты көп ичип алсаң акылэсиңди жоготуп, жинди болуп каласың, андан башка дагы кишинин ден соолугуна абдан
зыян. Ал эми инсандын жакшы, жаман касиеттеринин булагы анын ички дүйнөсү болот,
алар кийин адамдын сырткы дүйнөсүнө чыгат. Ошондуктан киши биринчи ирет өзүнүн ички
дүйнөсүн ар кандай жаман ойлордон, иштерден тазалаш керек.
КОЛДОНУЛГАН КИТЕПТЕР
1.
Т.Таластан, Жусуп Баласагын. Бишкек 2003ж. 91-б.
2.
А.Ормушев, Ислам цивилизациясы. Бишкек 2003ж. 150-б.
3.
С.Иптаров, Н.Кулматов, Адеп билими. Бишкек «Аль салам», 2001ж. 150-б.
4.
О.Кожогулов, Основы безопасности жизнедеятельности. Бишкек 2007ж. 133-б.
5.
А.Мамбеталиев, Сулаймандын накыл сөздөрү. Бишкек, «Аль салам», 2001ж. 65б.
75
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 ETHNIC IDENTITY, LANGUAGE POLICY AND COGNITION: BURYATS IN RUSSIA AND
HISPANICS IN US COMPARED
Polina Dashinimaeva
Buryat State University, Ulan-Ude, Russia
Telephone contact: 8 (301 2) 210060, 89146349821
ABSTRACT
The paper presents comparative analysis of the indigenous language situations in Russia
and US regarding Buryat and Spanish. The extent of acquisition of Buryat decreases from village
population to town-dwellers who get more second-language-speaking while most Hispanics
remain fluent-Spanish-speaking who do not seem to diminish their tongue function. Moreover,
they set forth a goal to transform America as a whole into a bilingual (meaning English-Spanish),
bicultural society.
As for legislation aspect, the language right (free-will choice) in Russia has always been
declared both constitutionally and judicially, but many indigenous languages, including Buryat,
are under threat of extinction. In US the national language, i.e. English, has recently been
declared by Congress after a so-called “Spanish invasion”. Regarding functioning of the
languages, the cases are not identical either: Buryat is not as daily currency as Spanish in
business, public and social services and schools. There is not any public sphere where the
language functions prevalently. Education situations are quite different as well. In Buryatia there
has been a steady decrease in the amount of hours spent for the language study, moreover, for
over 20 years (1960ies – 1980ies) it was not taught in schools. Hispanics have managed to
implement “dual immersion program” and the like.
Thus, language policies and language situations in the both areas differ much: as the
activities, as the languages. The ones held in Russia have changed cognition which is
interrelated with issues of ethnic identification. Hispanics have come to effective results in
safeguarding their tongue being persistent language-rights advocates.
Key words: Buryat, Spanish, indigenous, mother tongue, endangered, safeguard,
preserve.
Identity implies individuality. If a nation wishes to preserve its uniqueness or to
establish its presence, and to avoid being an anonymous ingredient in a cultural
melting-pot, then it must search for ways of expressing its difference from the rest
of the world. Flags, uniforms and other such symbols will have their place, but
nothing will be so naturally and universally present as a national language…
76
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 David Crystal The Republic of Buryatia lies in the northeastern part of Russia. Buryats, its major
indigenous population of Mongolian descendance, speak the mother tongue, correspongingly, of
Mongolian roots. The extent of its acquisition decreases from village population who are
proficient speakers to majority middle-aged town-dwellers who prefer to interact in Russian
though many of them comprehend the mother tongue quite well. The younger people if brought
up in town are hardly able to speak in it. So the issue of preservation of the endangered Buryat
language is not only a concern of scholars but of advocates of social, economic and political
sectors.
The objects to be compared are not of equivalence, hence Buryats have not migrated
anywhere (except nomads’ mode of life in ancient times), remaining to live within 2 smaller areas
and a bigger one, the autonomous Republic, in the Russian Federation where there are 2 official
languages, Buryat and Russian; Hispanics (from Latin American countries, mostly from Mexico)
have immigrated for a better life in the United States, the area where “for over three hundred
years, fluency in English has been a prerequisite to moving ahead in America” (Huntington,
2004). The common thing is the indigenous tongue acquisition-related issue, i.e. the one of
cognition.
The minority language – Buryat and Spanish - bearers are of three kinds:
bilinguals of “major vs minor” type: Russian-Buryat and English-Spanish;
bilinguals of “minor vs major” type: Buryat-Russian and Spanish-English;
monolinguals, i.e. only Buryat- and Spanish-speaking.
The correspondence of each type representatives is not identical either. Moreover, it
seems to be like quite the reverse (see figure 1): Buryats tend to get more second-languagespeaking, while Hispanics find it possible to interact more in the first language than in the second
one, so there are numerous social groups of Hispanics who are limited-English-speaking (adults
mainly). Figure 1 Buryats Hispanics type 1 type 2 type 3 77
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 One can hardly find the ones of the 3rd group in Buryatia. Anyway, there are a few
elderly village citizens who understand Russian to a certain extent, but living in the natural
language environment they do not make it function.
Taking into account the universally accepted belief that language is a vehicle of the
intangible cultural heritage, the both peoples assign specific importance to regional linguistic
policies. But the results are different, as vividly seen in the scheme above depicted: the objectives
must have been attained by different activities. Let’s consecutively focus on them.
LEGISLATION
Constitution of Russia has always declared Russian as the national language. The
federal Law about languages of peoples of the former Soviet Union and an amendment to it
(caused mainly by the adoption of the rename “the Russian Federation”) were passed
correspondingly in 1991 and 1998. The law “Of the Republic of Buryatia Peoples’ Languages”
and its amendments, accordingly, were adopted in 1992 and 2003 + 2006. In article 1 they label
the official languages of the Republic to be Buryat (firstgoing) and Russian. On the whole the
document provides the mother language with all functional rights at whatever level. But it is
common knowledge that the right can be applied and implemented if there are appropriate
conditions to do it - political, economic, social, cognitive etc. The latter is a challenge, and in this
term law is likely to be an autonomously existing paper finely prescribing freedoms. A second
judicial document to regulate language functioning is Constitution of the Republic of Buryatia
adopted on 22nd February, 1994 (article 67 declares the language status).
As for the other continent situation, things are again processing in the reverse way: a law
document is carried out when conditions have ripened.
D.Crystal (1995) notes that English was never legally recognized as official until the
1980ies. A movement developed as a reaction to the dramatic growth of Spanish in certain parts
of the country (such as Florida, the south-western states, and New York City). In 1981 Senator
S.I.Hayakawa proposed a constitutional amendment – the English Language Amendment (ELA)
– to make English the official language of the country and to safeguard it in this way. His measure
failed to be taken forward in 1983. By 1996, 23 states had made English their official language.
From the outset, ELA “was bitterly attacked by many who saw it as white supremacist
movement which would in due course deny ethnic minorities their linguistic rights… One
consequence was the formation in 1987 of an alternative pressure group, English Plus”, who
proposed The Cultural Rights Amendment to encourage bilingualism: Americans should “acquire
strong English language proficiency plus mastery of a second or multiple languages” … “Their
fear is that, one day, active bilingualism will be condemned as unAmerican” (Ibid.:115). So
Hispanic advocates set forth two goals:
1. to prevent the assimilation of Hispanics into America’s Anglo-Protestant
society and culture, and instead create a large, autonomous, permanent,
Spanish-speaking, social and cultural Hispanic community on American soil;
2. to transform America as a whole into a bilingual, bicultural society
(Huntington, 2004).
78
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 On May 18th, 2006 the Senate finally voted for the new Amendment (the author is Sen.
James M.Inhofe) to make English the “national language” of the United States, declaring that no
one has a right to federal communications or services in a language other than English except for
those already guaranteed by law. By labeling English “the national language” rather than “the
official language” of the country, Inhofe may have lessened its symbolic power. Opponents,
however, said it could negate executive orders, regulations, civil service guidances and other
multilingual
ordinances
not
officially
sanctioned
by
acts
of
Congress
(http://www.washingtonpost.com). The debate which has been boiling in Washington goes
beyond the language to immigration reforms (to cut down on illegal immigration) and the Inhofe
Amendment “remains mired between the Senate and the House of Representatives”
(http://www.bradenton.com).
In Russia, though the language right declared both constitutionally and judicially, many
indigenous languages are under threat of extinction, e.g. endangered languages of the evenks,
chukchis, koryaks, etc. (the northern part of the country), the Kalmyk and Buryat languages.
The legislation aspect of the issue lets to deduce that the Russian judiciary prescribes the
case while the American one postscribes it.
PRAGMATICS OF THE ISSUE
The language situation of an area changes mainly according to the ideology conducted at
the state level. In this term of relevance is a historic aspect of the issue.
After the Great October Revolution, in 1923, the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet
Socialist Republic was founded, and by that time, nearly all Buryats had spoken their mother
tongue. In 1925 14,3% Buryats were literate, so were 33,4 % Russians (Дырхеева, 2002), so
language-related activities pursued to make the population literate. The 1920ies were significant
for efforts to begin implementing policies of bilingualism (ones who mastered both oral and written
forms of Russian and Buryat were to be encouraged and given job preferences and a higher
salary). But there were numerous factors to bring the campaign to failure: lack of finance,
disapproval of the Kremlin headquarters to process documentation in Buryat, ethnic mentality etc.
Though “a free-will choice of the language” was never set up as a principle, activities seem to
have been more democracy-based, than the ones carried out later.
Further language-related activities made things even worse, hence the Russian language
was declared to be the main tool “to integrate backward nations into the socialist society”. One of
the most complex issues of that period was alphabet. The Buryat written language, which had
been of old Mongolian origin (i.e. it had served the former ehnic and religious elite) did not suit the
new soviet language system any more. First it was transformed into the Latin script (1931-1939),
and since 1939 Cyrillic alphabet has been attached to the language. Assumptions like all minor
“languages would afterwards flow into the common universal language” justified inappropriate
acts (Ibid.). The harm, which was caused by those experiments, could not be measured, to say
nothing of violence done to the mother tongue cognition mechanism. The period coincided with
vast exiles and executions of the so-called “people’s enemies”, among which there were
prominent Buryat scholars who dealt with reforming of a new literary standard language. The
Buryat language itself underwent a repression, for a “panmongolian” and Tibetan lexicon, and
Buryat words of the ancient origin were to be excluded from the glossary. The authoritarian
79
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 language inspection like that might have been a turning point for the people to turn their back on
the mother tongue, who when speaking it were blamed for displaying panmongolian chauvinism.
In 1978 the Buryat language domain was restricted to agricultural sphere, literature, art
and press (Шагдаров, 1978). That domain now has become bilingual, Russian-Buryat namely, so
one can assume there is not any public sphere where the language functions prevalently. The
only natural domains of the tongue are the home and street and other inofficial place talks.
It is of no wonder, hence there is a steady decrease in the mother tongue-bearers’
number: a recent sociolinguistic study revealed that each 3 years a reduction in it is 8,000 people
(TV-news, 14th March, 2008). In 1994 of 78,700 Ulan-Ude-dwellers of the Buryat origin 78,3%
considered it to be the mother tongue (it does not mean proficiency of the tongue acquisition),
21,7% found Russian as the native language. A 1988 datum says, the number of Buryat-speaking
citizens in Irkutsk region (Ust’-Orda) is much less - 41 % (Историко-культурный атлас Бурятии,
2001). The only area where nearly all Buryats (42,400) are fluent-speaking in the mother tongue
is Aginsk in Chita region (the both areas have recently been deprived of their autonomous status
and integrated with the regions into larger units). As for the total number of Buryats up to the1989
Census, 421,380 Buryats lived in the Soviet Union, about 50,000 Buryats living abroad. The
number has not much changed since then.
Thus, the Buryat language is not as daily currency as Spanish in business, public and
social services and schools. Regarding the Hispanic community prof. I.Stavans observes: “you
can open a bank account, get medical care, watch soap operas, file your taxes, love and die in
America without a single word “en inglés”. In short, we are witnessing a reshaping of the nation’s
linguistic identity” (cited by: Huntington, 2004).
Another illustration of the situation goes to N.Hoffman: “Nearly everything the 44-year-old
janitor needs can be had in her mother tongue. She shops in Spanish, files police reports, talks to
nurses and teachers and voice-mail systems. For 17 years, Alvarado has lived in a Spanishspeaking world, first in Los Angeles and now in Concord” (http://www.nhoffman@cctimes.com).
But here one should note that many immigrants from Latin American countries, living in
ethnic enclaves where Spanish language use is much more prevalent, fill jobs such as farm work,
construction and housekeeping that may not require much knowledge of English. That is why the
message of those who promote assimilation is as follows: unless one is an English-limited
speaker, they are going “to hit a ceiling”. The ceiling is, in particular, a job rebuff. The other ceiling
is an old refrain from people uncomfortable with the growing Latino population “Why don’t they
speak English?” So the process aimed at the indigenous tongue safeguarding inevitably crosses
the issue of political and social character. People, wherever, cannot but discriminate themselves
as “insiders” and “outsiders”, and one of the main criteria of the division is the language and
dialect belonging.
Anyway, social processes are slowly changing. In Miami the number of jobs that require
bilingual skills is increasing. The second language acquisition also affects earnings, namely,
bilingual police such as Phoenix and Las Vegas are paid more than those who only speak
English. In many states, those aspiring to political office might have to be fluent in both
languages. In short, if the spread of Spanish may continue, this could, in due course, have
significant consequences. In particular, English speakers lacking fluency in Spanish are likely to
be at a disadvantage in the competition for jobs, promotions, and contracts.
80
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 According to the New York Times, 16 December 2000, “Spanish-speaking parents are
generally more receptive to having their children in such classes, and Chinese and Russian
parents are more resistant” (cited by Huntington, 2004). The children of contemporary nonHispanic immigrants by and large learn English and assimilate into American society faster than
those of Hispanic immigrants. Osvaldo Soto, president of the Spanish American League Against
Discrimination (SALAD) argues that Americans should acquire strong English language
proficiency plus mastery of a second (meaning Spanish) or multiple languages (Ibid.).
The US multilingualism, the dominant type of which throughout the country is the EnglishSpanish bilingualism, could have formed only in America – the country, made of immigrants who
had come with all different languages and customs and cultures. The country founded on the
basic principle of democracy could not have abolished the right to a language choice.
28,1 mln. Hispanics in the United States and 470 thousand Buryats in the Russian
Federation compared present the phenomenon of “polar” character not only in term of number,
but also in term of history, politics, social life, mentality and ehnic psychotype.
EDUCATION SPHERE
It is common knowledge that the mother-language education is the most important
manner of safeguarding indigenous languages. The two situations compared here are quite
different.
Russian as a distinct subject began to be taught at schools of Buryatia in 1931; 1938 is
the year when there appeared Decree carried out by the People’s Commissars Soviet and the
Central Committee of All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “About Obligatory Study of
Russian in Schools of National Republics and Regions”. The document manifested a centralized
system of education to be closely watched. On the other hand, it meant a corresponding steady
decrease in the amount of academic hours spent for the Buryat language teaching. On the whole
in the Soviet Union until 1966 the education was realized in 94 national languages, and the
number fell down to 52 in the 1970ies, among the ones abolished was Buryat. From 1931 to 1960
the amount of Buryat schools got on the sharp decrease: 317 units (which accounted for 46 % of
the total number) declined to 170 (Дырхеева, 2002). Methods and contents of teaching, at that,
remained the ones for bearers of Russian as the mother tongue. Gradually in the school
curriculum there was no teaching of the Buryat language as a discipline. Local authorities were
not able to understand that its study should be a priority if the nation wants to remain as the
nation, to live in an ethnic enclave-like community and to provide generation links through the
language heritage.
The consequence of that policy is quite tragic: a generation grew up without knowledge of
both the language written form, and Buryat literature. This generation gap broke culture links and
disencouraged coming descendants to acquire their mother tongue, to say the least. Though in
the 1990ies some schools and higher educational establishments began repiloting language
hours (about 2 hours a week), the situation did not improve, for it produces only an exterior
positive impression that everything is OK, hence the language is being taught.
81
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 As opposed to Buryats, Hispanics have come to effective results in safeguarding their
tongue. First of all, the educational program worth speaking and focusing on is “dual immersion
program”.
The initiative of piloting it goes back to the 1960es, when Hispanic activists pressured
government agencies and the courts to require education of children in the language of their
parents, further to recruit teachers - first the ones fluent in Spanish, then those from Spain and
Puerto Rico. Spanish became one of the disciplines in the school curriculum, the other subjects
taught in English. The widely debated problem of Hispanic students being slow to join
mainstream classes, so scoring below their white peers on state tests, who could not acquire
enough English to function in an English environment, made Hispanic organizations persuade
Congress to authorize cultural maintenance programs in bilingual education.
The goal of the program is to begin teaching math, science and social studies 90% of the
time in Spanish, then reach equal fluency (50% each language) by fifth grade; that is why schools
lose up to half their students from year to year (http://www.madison.com), retention being
considered critical to the school’s success. But research shows children in language immersion
schools really take off and surpass other students academically. Such a radical approach shift
became a priority of most schools because up to research intense use of Spanish in early grades
produces the best Spanish-related outcomes in the end, at no cost to English language
development or to academic achievement. Parents are warned there could be a learning lag early
on.
English-speaking students are able to adapt to this lopsided approach because of the
dominance of their native language in the larger society. Apart from that teachers instill positive
attitudes about Mexico and Spanish. They do not translate the curriculum into English but instead
use visual aids, routine and themes to reach students. The program also counts on children
teaching each other, an approach called “modeling”. That is why a 50-50 split between native
English speakers and native Spanish speakers is preferred (Ibid.).
US Secretary of Education Richard Riley endorsed dual language education and
predicted that by 2050 one quarter of the U.S. population and a larger proportion of young people
would be Spanish-speaking (Huntington, 2004). They are going to grow up and be comfortable
around other languages and people from other cultures.
CONCLUSION
As the brief contrastive summary above-depicted shows, language policies and language
situations in the both areas differ much. Minor languages which function as subsidiary in the
Great Powers as US and Russia survive in different ways.
Many scholars-optimists assume that Buryats’ development in public, political and
cultural aspects has fastened under the influence of the neighbouring Russians, and so far
scattered tribes consolidated and integrated into the nation, that they have all the factors which
predetermine ethnic identification left, i.e. the territory, language, forms of self-management,
religion, traditional culture, ethnic symbols including (cited by Дырхеева, 2002). But the extent to
which people acquire the mother tongue can hardly gives the possibility to refer language to
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 these factors. The contemporary situation is a complete defeat for language-rights advocates,
who, along with the people themselves, proved to be too passive, and sometimes courageless, to
resist the dominant view.
Linguists point out that it usually takes two or three generations for a people to lose their
ancestral language. American Hispanics did not allow it to happen. Buryats nearly did it, though
they identify themselves as ethnic group. Identities are indeed imagined selves but they are the
product of the interaction between the self and others (Huntington, 2004:23).
Whether ethnic communities should define their identity in term of the mother tongue,
whether therefore Buryat roots can be rendered as lost or irrelevant, there seems to be no
unanimous response. But once irreversible consequences of cognition type have taken place in
majority people’s brains (where starts language), first of all, language-related policies should be
more properly science-grounded and language-rights advocates should carry out more profound
decisions. Traditional methods of teaching should be altered. Time to declare pathetic slogans
“Let us not forget our mother tongue!” and the like without relevant recommendations how to
implement objectives has passed.
LITERATURE 1. Дырхеева Г.А. Бурятский язык в условиях двуязычия: проблемы
функционирования и перспективы развития. – Улан-Удэ: Изд-во БНЦ СО РАН. –
2002 - p.p. 5-40.
2. Историко-культурный атлас Бурятии. – М.: ИПЦ «Дизайн. Информация.
Картография». – 2001. - p 583.
3. Шагдаров Л.Д. О возрастании роли русского языка в развитии национальнорусского двуязычия в Бурятии // Исследования по бурятской филологии. – УланУдэ, 1978. – p.8.
4. Crystal, D. (1997), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language:
Cambridge University Press, p.115.
5. Huntington, S.P. (2004), Who are we? The Challenges to America’s National Identity,
New York, p.p. 316-324.
6. http://www.bradenton.com (accessed Jun 15th, 2006, reported by Phuong Nguyen).
7. http://www.nhoffman@cctimes.com (accessed March 20th, 2006).
8. http://www.madison.com (accessed June 11th, 2005).
9. http://www.washingtonpost.com (accessed May 19th, 2006, reported by Jim
VandeHei).
83
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 ЗАМАНБАП МАРКЕТИНГ КОНЦЕПЦИЯСЫ ЖАНА КЫРГЫЗСТАНДАГЫ АБАЛ
«СЕН САТЫП АЛДЫН–ӨЗҮН КҮНӨӨЛҮҮСҮН»
Азамат Максүдүнов
Кыргыз–Түрк Манас университети
Экономика жана башкаруу факультети
Менеджмент бөлүмү
Кенже илимий кызматкер
azamat.maksudunov@manas.kg
Рынок шартында кандай кана экономикалык иш – аракет болбосун маркетингдик
концепияга таянуу менен жүрүгүзүлүшү керек. Коом талап кылган, керектөөчүлөр талап
кылган товар же кызмат көрсөтүүлөрдү өндүрүү чарба жүргүзүүчү субьектилердин узак
мөөнөттө пайда табуу же рынокто иш – аракетин улантуу мүмкүнчүлүгүн жогорулатат.
Өнүккөн өлкөлөрдө маркетинг–бүгүнкү күндө ишкердик иштин «алфавити», башкаруунун
философиясы катары каралып келет (Завьялов, 2000). Маркетинг жеке адам, коом жана
ишканалардын кызыкчылыктарын айкалыштырган, өндүрүштөн мурда башталып, өндүрүш
учурунда жана андан кийин да улантылган, ишканага жол көргөзгөн ишкананын бир
функциясы катары, же болбосо Америкалык Маркетинг Ассоцияциясынын аныктамасы
боюнча «максатка жетүү жана максатталган керектөөчүлөрдүн муктаждыктарын
канааттандыруу үчүн ишкана тарабынан жаңы пикир, товар жана кызмат көрсөтүүлөрдүн
өндүрүлүшү, бааланышы, бөлүштүрүлүшү жана таанытылышы» (Алекунин, 2000:10).
катары аныкталат. Тактап айтканда заманбап маркетинг концепциясы ишкер, керектөөчү
жана коомдун кызыкчылыктарын бирдей караган бизнестик философияга айланган. Бирок,
бүгүнкү күндөгү коомдун да, ар бир керектөөчүнүн да, ишкананын да кызыкчылыктарын тен
салмакташтырган, заманбап маркетингдик концепция жүздөгөн жылдар бою созулган
капиталистик системадагы бизнестик эволюциянын натыйжасы болуп саналат. Демек,
маркетинг концепциясы бүгүнкү күндөгү денгээлине жеткиче бир канча этаптан өткөнү
түшүнүктүү. Бүгүнкү күнгө чейин маркетингдин өнүгүү этаптары төмөндөгүлөрдү
камтыйт(Kotler, 2003):
Товар жана өндүрүштүк концепция,
Сатуу концепциясы
Маркетинг концепциясы
Социалдык маркетинг концепциясы
Глобалдык маркетинг концепциясы
Дүйнө жүзүндө азыркы күндөгү маркетингдик концепция 1960– жылдардан кийин
өтө тездик менен өнүгө баштаган. Маркетингдин өнүгүшүндө бир катар факторлор орун
алганы менен керектөөчүлөр, керектөөчүлөрдүн жүрү-туруму, кызыкчылыктары, сурооталаптары эң негизги фактордон бири болгон. Бүгүнкү күндө маркетингдин улам жаңы
концепциялары жогорудагы тизменин катарын толутурууда. Атап айтсак, мамилеге,
баалуулукка негизделген концепция бүгүнкү күндө өтө актуалдуу мүнөзгө ээ болуп, көптөгөн
ишканалар чарбалык иш-аракеттеринде колдонуп келишет.
84
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Ишкананы башкарууда маркетингдин орду өнүккөн өлкөлөрдө биринчи орундарда
келсе, өткөөл экономикалуу өлкөлөрдө мааниси жок бөлүм катары кабыл алынгандай
сезилет. Бирок, маркетингдин кээ бир элементтери социалистик системанын учурунда да
практикада кандайдыр бир денгээлде колдонулуп келгенин окумуштуулар танышпайт.
Демек, маркетинге рынок системасында эле эмес, пландуу экономикалык системада да
кенири муктаждык болгон. Ошондуктан рынок экономикасына багыт алган баардык өлкөлөр
жана алардын арасында Кыргызстан үчүн дагы аны изилдөө, үйрөнүү жана практикада
ишке ашыруу өтө маанилүү. 2007–жылы чакан жана орто ишканалардагы маркетинг
концепциясы боюнча ишкана жетекчилери менен жүргүзүлгөн сурамжылоолордун
жыйынтыгында ишкана жетекчилери негизинен маркетинг боюнча тийешелүү теориялык
билимге ээ (75.2%) экендиги маалым болгон (Maksudunov, 2007).
Андай, болсо
практикадагы абал эмне үчүн таптакыр башка деген суроо туулат. Азыркы күндөгү
маркетингдик концепцияны колдонуу үчүн зарыл чөйрөнүн жоктугунан өткөөл экономикалуу
өлкөлөрдө жана Кыргызстанда ишканалар сатууга негизделген концепцияга көбүрөөк
баcым жасап келишет. Атаандаштыктын жоктугунан ашкере пайдаланышып ишканалардын
көпчүлүгү «Сен сатып алдын–өзүн күнөөлүсүн» деген маанайдагы бизнестик философияга
таянып, иш жүргүзүп жатканы белгилүү. Экономикасы өнүккөн өлкөлөрдө керектөөчү
ишкананын баардык иш–аракеттеринин чок ортосунда орун алса, биздин ишканалар
колунан эмне келсе ошону гана өндүрүү менен чектелишип, узак мөөнөттө кыргыз
коомунда да керектөөчүлөрдүн ан-сезими, сатып алуу жөндөмдүүлүгү жогорулаарын
капарга албай келишет. Керетөөчүлөр маркетингди, кардарларды алдоо жолу менен пайда
табуу үчүн ишкана тарабынан колдонулган ыкма катары кабыл алышып, бул көз караш өз
кезегинде маркетингдин өнүгүшүнө, жайылышына тоскоол болуп жатат. Бирок,
чындыгында, маркетинг ишканалардын эффективдүүлүгүн жогорулатып, экономикалык
өнүгүүгү түздөн – түз салымын кошууга жөндөмдүү. Жогоруда да айтылып өткөндөй
ишканалардын маркетингдик концепцияга жараша иш жүргүзбөй жатышынын себеби
көптөгөн факторлорго байланыштуу. Атап айтканда атаандаштык, керектөөчүлөр, өлкөдөгү
бизнести жөнгө салып турган мыйзамдар, эрежелер ж.б. Мындай факторлордун ичинен эн
маанилүүсү керектөөчүнүн өзү экенинде эч кандай шек жок. Андыктан, ар бирибиз
керектөөчү катары өз укуктарыбызды билип, билбесек үйрөнүп жана орду келгенде
укугубузду талап кылуу ан сезимин ойготушубуз керек. Себеби, Кыргызстандын шартында
ишканалар маркетингди билбегендиктен эмес, керектөөчүлөр талап кылбагандыктан улам
сатуу концепциясына таянуу менен иштерин улантышууда.
Керектөөчү катары ар бирибиздин негизги укуктарыбыз бар. Буларды билүү бүгнкү
күндө жеке тармактан өз кызыкчылыктарыбызды талап кылууга өбөлгө түзөт. Бул укуктар
ааламдык мүнөзгө ээ жана баардык адамдарга бирдей тиешелүү. 1960–жылдардан баштап
түптөлө баштаган жана 1985–жылы 9– апрелде БУУнун генералдык ассамблеясы
тарабынан кабыл алынган документке таяна турган болсок бүткүл дүйнөлүк
керектөөчүлөрдүн негизги сегиз укугу бар (http://www.consumersinternational.org):
Биринчи даражадагы керектөөлөрүн канааттандыруу укугу
Тамактануу, кийим кийүү, баш калкалоо, кабарлашуу, билим алуу.
85
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Коопсуздук укугу
Ден–соолукка же жашоого терс таасирин тийгизген товарлар, өндүрүш процесстери
жана кызмат көрсөтүүлөрдөн керектөөчүлөрдүү коргоо.
Маалымат алуу укугу
Товарларды жана кызмат көрсөтүүлөрдү сатып алуу учурунда туура чечим кабыл
алууга түрткү боло турган маалыматтарды алуу, ката, жанылта турган жарнамалардан
сактануу.
Эркин тандоо укугу
Ар кыл баада жана сапаттуулукта сунушталган товар жана кызмат көрсөтүүлөрдүн
арасынан эч кимге көз карандысыз тандап алуу укугунун болушу.
Өз пикирин угузуу
Мамлекет тарабынан жүргүзүлгөн экономикалык саясаттын жүрүшүндө жана
ишканалардын
товар
өндүрүү,
кызмат
көрсөтүү
учурунда
керектөөчүлөрдүн
кызыкчылыктарына жараша иш алып баруусу.
Келтирирлген зыянды кайра калыбына келтирүү укугу
Сатылып алынган товар же кызмат көрсөтүү тийиштүү сапатта болбогон учурда
келтирилген зыянды кайра кайтарып алуу укугу
Үйрөнүү, сабаттуулугун жогорулатуу укугу
Керектөөчүлөрдүн негизги укуктары жана жоопкерчиликтери жөнүндө маалымат
алуу укугу.
Таза экологиялык чөйрөдө жашоо укугу
Экологиялык тен салмактуулук болгон, таза чөйрөдө жашоо жана ал чөйрөнү
келечек муундар үчүн коргоо укугу.
Жогоруда саналып өткөн укуктарды дүйнө жүзүнө жайылтуу жаатында атайын
мамлекеттик эмес уюм 1961-жылдан бери иштеп келет. Керектөөчүлөрдүн бирдиктеринин
бүткүл дүйнөлүк уюму (Consumer International — CI) 72 өлкөдөн керектөөчүлөрдүн
86
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 укуктарын коргоо боюнча маселелер менен алектенген 180ден ашуун мамлекеттик жана
коомдук уюмдарды өзүнө камтыйт.
Дүйнө жүзүндө 15-март дүйнөлүк керектөөчүлөрдүн укуктарын коргоо күнү катары
1983-жылдан бери белгиленет. 1962-жылдын 15-мартында Джон Ф. Кеннеди АКШнын
Конгрессинде сүйлөгөн сөзүндө керектөөчү деген түшүнүккө мындай аныктама берген экен:
«Керектөөчү–бул биз, баардыгыбыз, керектөөчү–бул жеке же мамлекеттик, баардык
экономикалык
чечимдерге
терен
таасир
берген
экономикалык
катмар»
(http://www.profkom.org.ru/publ/2‐1‐0‐12). Биздин өлкөдө керектөөчүлөрдүн укуктарын
коргоо күнү 1997–жылдан бери белгилене баштады. Себеби, ушул жылдын 10–декабрында
керектөөчүлөрдүн укуктарын коргоо боюнча атайын мыйзам кабыл алынган
(http://www.pravo.gov.kg/zpp/zakon.htm,). Керектөөчүлөрдүн укутарын коргоо жаатында
мамлекеттик жана коомдук уюмдар, бирикмелер Кыргызстанда да өз иштерин алып
барышууда. Тилекке каршы, мындай уюмдардын бар же жок экенин Кыргызстандын ар бир
атуулу биле бербейт. Андыктан, массалык маалымат каражаттарынын жардамы менен
керектөөчүлөргө укуктары жөнүндө, алардын укуктарын коргоо үчүн иштеп жатышкан
уюмдар жөнүндө маалыматты жеткирүүгө көнүл бурулушу зарыл. Жогорку окуу
жайларында, мектептерде атайын сабактардын өтүлүшү да учурдун талабына ылайык
келээр эле. Керектөөчүлөрдү өз укуктарын коргоого үндөгөн программалардын болушу
керек. Укуктары сөзсүз түрдө корголушу керек. Ал эми ишканалардын жетекчилиги, өздөрү
баш болуп, маркетингди үйрөнүүгө жана кызматкерлерине үйрөтүүгө умтулуулары учурдун
талабы. Себеби, бүгүнкү чакан ишканалар эртенки ири ишканалар. Буга жетиш үчүн
керектөөчүнү биринчи планга койгон чарба жүргүзүү түшүнүгүн калыптандырууга, башкача
айтканда заманбап маркетинг концепциясына жетишүү ишканалар үчүн эле эмес,
жалпысынан коом үчүн да маанилүү. Андыктан «сен саттын–сен күнөөлүсүн» деп өз
убагында талап койуу жана ошону менен эле катар өз жоопкерчилигибизди да эч качан
эстен чыгарбашыбыз керек.
КОЛДОНУЛГАН АДАБИЯТТАР
1.
ASSAEL, Henry. (1985). Marketing –Management. Boston: Kent Publishing
Company.
2.
ДЖАПАРОВА, Р. Н. (2002). История, сущность маркетинга и его
реформирование в переходный период. Бишкек: Издательство Кыргызско –
Славянского Университета.
3.
Закон Кыргызской Республики, О защите прав потребителей. г.Бишкек от 10
декабря 1997 года N 90
4.
FHILIP, Kotler. (2003). A Framework for Marketing Management. Second Edition.
Prentice Hall.
5.
6.
КАМАЛОВА, Анара. (1993). Маркетингдин негиздери. Бишкек: КГНУ.
KARAHAN, Kasım. (1999). 2000’li Yıllara Girerken Toplumumuzun Pazarlamaya
Bakış Açısı Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Pazarlama Dünyası Dergisi. Kasım – Aralık. Sayı: 78.
Yıl: 13.
87
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 7.
KARAKAFAKIOĞLU,
yayıncılık.
Mehmet. (2005). Pazarlama İlkeleri. İstanbul: Literatür
8.
http://www.profkom.org.ru/publ/2-1-0-12 , 02.02.2007
9.
http://www.consumersinternational.org, 06.02.2007
10.
http://www.pravo.gov.kg/zpp/zakon.htm, 07.02.2007
11.
http://www.pravo.gov.kg, 31.01.2007
12.
http://www.tubider.com/tuketici_haklari.asp?busayi=9&menuno 21.11.2006
88
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 KIRGIZİSTAN’DA Kİ AHISKA TÜRKLERİ
M. Guseynova
Öğretim Görevlisi, Uluslararası Atatürk Alatoo Üniversitesi
GİRİŞ
1991 senesi Kırgızistan için cok önemli bir tarihtir. Yaklaşık 70 sene büyük bir devletin
parçası olan artık kendi başına bir ülke oluşarak 31 Ağustos 1991’de Kırgız Cumhuriyeti
Bağımsız bir ülke haline geldi. Kırgızistan bir ulus-devleti olarak Demokrasi ve Pazar ekonomisi
sistemlerini seçerek devleti yeniden kurmayı başladı. Sovyet Birliği çöktükten sonra Orta Asya
ülkeri geçiş süreçlerini yaşamak zorunda kaldılar ve bazı ülkeler kısa bir sürede gelişebildiler,
mesela Kazakistan. Az profesyonel kadrosu başta olarak Kırgızistan kendi politikalarını belirledi
ve gelişme dönemine ayak bastı.
Bugün Kırgızistan’da 80’den fazla millet yaşamaktadır, bunların hepsi ülkenin nüfusunu
oluşturuyor. Burda yaşayan her milletin kendilerine ait olan tarihi vardır.
Bu çalışmada Kırgızistan’ da ki Ahıska Türkleri’nin kısa tarihi, günümüzde sosyal ve
ekonomik gelişmelerine genel bir bakiş sunulacaktır.
KIRGIZİSTAN’DA Kİ AHISKA TÜRKLER’İNİN KISA TARİHİ
1944 senesi Ahıska Türkleri ve başka Kafkas halkları için çok acı bir tarihtir. Stalin’nin
sürgün politikaları bu tarihte yer almıştır. Bölgede yıllarca yaşayan Ahıska Türkleri bir gece
içerisinde evlerini, ailelerini, mallarını kaybedip Orta Asya ülkelerine ve Sibirya’ya
sürdürülmüşlerdir. Insanlar: Türkçülük, Kemalistlik ve Türkiye taraftarlığı diye suçlanıyorlardı.
1944’ten önceki birçok Türk’ün soyadı Gürcüce’ye çevrilmiştir, mesela, Paşaoğlu – Paşaladze,
Alioğlu – Alidze, Zeyneloğlu – Zenişvilli gibi. 1938’de Sovyet anayasasının kabulünden sonra
Ahıskalıların bir kısmını Azerbaycan milleti diye yazdılar. II Dünya Savaşı yıllarına kadar askere
alınmayan Ahıska Türkleri, savaş baslayınca askere alınmaya başlandı. 15 Kasim 1944 Türk
köyleri askerler tarafından kuşatıldı. Bir anda aileler yıkıldı, insanların çoğu trenlerde öldu, bir
kısmı soğuktan, diğeri açlıktan. Sürgüne gönderilen kişi toplam rakamı – 115000. Türklerin
oturduğu evlere Ermeni ve Gürcüleri yerleştirdiler ve maddi yardım sağladılar (Şakirov R.,
AHISKA
TURKLERI
VE
AHISKA
TURKLERI’NIN
BASINDA
YER
ALISI,
http://www.ahiskalilar.org/dosyalar/RASIMTEZ.pdf ). Böylece, Ahıska Türklerin 16000 kişisi
Kırgızistan’a yerleştirildi. Yeni yerde ilk yillar çok zor şartlarda yaşanmıştır. Açlık, hastalıklar,
hasret – yaşamın genel temsilcileriydi. Yerli insanlar Ahiskalılara çok yardım etmişlerdi. Ilk
yıllarda, 1956 yılına kadar, hiç bir Türk oturduğu köyünden başka köye göçemezdi, akrabalarını
ziyarete de gidemezdi çünkü yasaktı ve sürekli kontröl altında yaşamak zorundalardı.
31 Ekim 1956’da XX. Kongresinden sonra 1944’te Kafkas bölgesinden sürülen Karaçay,
Balkar, Çeçen, Inguş ve Kalmık gibi Kafkasya halkları, vatanlarına dönme izni aldılar, fakat
Ahıska Türklerine dönuş izni çıkmadı (Şakirov R., AHISKA TURKLERI VE AHISKA
TURKLERI’NIN BASINDA YER ALISI, http://www.ahiskalilar.org/dosyalar/RASIMTEZ.pdf ).
Sonraki senelerde düzenlenen Kongrelerde Türklere yine izin çıkmadi ve böylece Ahıskalılar
kendi hayatlarını “yeni” anayurtlarında devam etme mecburiyetinde kaldılar.
Kırgızistan’da oturan Türkleri 2 gruba ayırabiliriz. 1.grub 1944’te Gürcüstan’dan
sürülenler ve onların çocukları, 2.grub – 1989 Fergana vadisinde yer alan ve savaşa dönen
89
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 olaylardan sonra gelen Türkler. Böylece Fergana olaylarından sonra Kırgızistan’a yaklaşık 12000
kişi göçmek zorunda kalmışlardı.
Son nüfus sayımına göre Kırgızistan’da günümüzde 51750 Ahıska Türkü yaşamaktadır.
1989’da yer alan Fergana olayları Ahıskalılar için 2.sürgün gibi sayılmaktadır. Bu
olayların nedenleri hala çok konuşulan konulardandır. Bu konuyla ilgelenen araştırmacılar biri
birinden farklı nedenleri anlatıyorlar.
Sovyetler Birliği dağılınca yaşanan kargaşa Ahıskalı Türkleri de etkilemiştir. 23 Mayıs
1989 günü Fergana Kuvasay kasabasında meyve satan bir Özbek kadını ile Ahıska Türkü bir
genç arasındaki tartışma, aniden kavgaya dönüşür. Bu kavga, Fergana, Margila, Taşlak ve
Kuvasoy şehirlerinde tam bir ayaklanma halini alır ve ancak 15 Haziran’da yatıştırılabilir. İki hafta
süren keşmekeşin bilançosu binlerce ölü ve yaralıdan ibaret değildir. Ahıska Türkleri, güvenlik
kuvvetlerince Fergana dışında kurulan kamplara yerleştirilmiş, büyük bir kısmı da Kazakistan,
Türkmenistan ve Azerbaycan’a kaçmıştır. 13 bin Ahıskalı 45 seneden beri oturdukları
Özbekistan’dan rahliye edilmiştir (Dünden bugüne Kafkasya, Kafkasya’da yaşayan Türkler, 121
s.).
Fergana olayları dünya basınında geniş yankılar yapmıştır. Alman Der Spiegel dergisinse
‘Her yer yanıyor!’ başlığı kullanılmıştır (Der Spiegel, #24, 12 Haziran, 1989). Ferganskaya pravda
gazetesi 23 Mayıs’ta çıkan olaylara ‘Bir grup sokak serserisi’’nin sebep olduğunu yazıyordu (A.
Bohr, Özbeklerle Mesketlerin Çatışması, RL PRD). Moskova’da çıkan Glasnost dergisi, olaylara
geniş yer ayırmış ve 24 Mayıs’ta Özbek gençlerin Ahıska Türklerinin oturduğu mahallelere
saldırarak ’24 saat içinde Özbekistan’ı terk etmeleri, aksi halde sonuçlara katlanmak zorunda
kalacakları’ tehdidinde bulunduklarını yazmış. Bu vahşete sebep olarak da, Ahıskalıların
kendilerindien daha iyi şartlarda yaşamalarını göstermişler (Y. Zeyrek, Ahıska Araştırmaları,
Ankara, 2006, 32 s.). Bugün yarım milyon civarındaki Ahıska Türkü, Azerbaycan, Kazakistan,
Krgızistan, Rusya, Ukrayna, Sibirya, Kuzey Kafkasya ve ABD ülkelerinde darmadağınık halde
yaşamaktadırlar.
SOSYAL GELİŞMELER
Fergana olaylarından sonra Kırgızistan’da yaşayan Türkler haklarının devlet tarafından
muhafaza edilmesi için Kırgızistan Ahıska Türkleri ‘As-Türk’ derneği kurdular. Dernek başkanı
Mahsut İzzet aynı zamanda da milletvekiliydi.
Sovyet zamanında kurulan ‘Sovyet milleti’ anlamı Sovyetler yıkıldıktan sonra bağımsız
ülklerde milletler arası çatışmalar nedeni oldu. Örnek olarak, 1989’da Özbekler ileTürkler
arasında yaşanan çatışmalar, 1990’da Özbekler ile Kırgızlar arasındaki çatışmalar, Azeriler ile
Ermeniler arasındaki çatışmalar (Nagornıy-Karabah). Bu sorunlar devletin belli ulusal
politikalasını uygulamak zorunda kaldı. Böylece,
7 Aralik 1993’te 11 millet temsilcisi cumhurbaşkanına yönelik yazıda bir Kurultay
düzenlenmesini rica ettiler. Bu Kurultay’in gündeminde milletler arası toleranslığın gelişmesi ve
bütün problemlerin incelenmesi gibi sorular vardı. Cumhurbaşkanı inisiatifi karşılayarak 21 Ocak
1994’te 1. Kurultay düzenlenmiştir. Bu kurultayda Kırgızistan Milleti Asamblesi açılışına karar
verilmişti ve böylece bu kurumda her bir millet temsilcilerini seçerek kendi Medeniyet merkezlerini
oluşturdular (www.assamblea.kg).
Bu tarihten itibaren Ahıska Türkleri derneği devletin sosyal hayatında, başka derneklerle
birlikte, bir röl aldı ve günümüzde devlet tarafından düzenlenen programlarda görev almaktadır.
Bugün, Türkler arasında profesörler, doktorlar, öğretmenler, avukatlar, muhasebeciler,
hemşireler, gazeteciler, sporcular, şarkıcılar, danscılar vs var. Bunların çoğu dernekte görev
almaktadırlar.
90
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Dernekte çalişan kişiler Ahıska Türklerinin sosyal ve kültürel ihtiyaclarını ve problemlerini
inceliyor ve yardım etmekte gayret gösteriyorlar. 2003’te yeni Başkan seçildikten sonra dernek
daha verimli calişmayi başladı. 2 komite düzenlendi. Birisi, Eğitim diğeri Kültür. Türkiye
Cumhuriyeti tarafindan desteklenen dernek, gençler için Türkiye’de eğitim alma ve Yüksek lisans
yapma imkanını kazandı. Böylece, dernek her Ahıska Türkünün herhangi bir problemini veya
ihtiyacını çözmeyi veya karşılamayı için kurulmuştur.
EKONOMİK GELİŞMELER
Ahıska Türkleri, az sayıda olduklari için, birbirlerine yakın köylerde yaşıyorlar.
Kırgızistan’da çok çalişkan bir millet sayılırlar. Kırgızistan’da 80 millet yaşadığı için bu milleteler
arasında toleranslık yer almaktadır. Ahıskalılar, sosyal ve ekonomi açıdan, normal şartlarda
hayatlarını devam etmektedirler. Her ailede hiç olmazsa bir inek veya başka evcil hayvan var.
Tarlaları dikip idare etmeyi çalışıyorlar.
1991’den bu güne kadar Türklerin ekonomik durumu gelişmesini incelediğimiz zaman çok
ilerlediğini soyleyebiliriz. Önceden aile butçeleri tarlalardan aldıkları gelirden oluşuyordu,
günümüzde Kırgızistan ekonomisine büyük katkıda bulunan Ahıskalılar tarafından büyük şirketler
çalıstırılıyor. Genel olarak, ekonomik açıdan normal şartlarda yaşamaktadırlar. Fakat Türklerin
çoğu, Kırgızistan’da yaşayan her millet gibi, hayatlarını pazarlarda devam etmek zorundalar. Her
ilkbahar tarlalara birşeyler dikip sonra pazarda fidanlarını satıp geçinmektedirler. Gençler,
genellikle yaz dönemde, çoğuncu yürt dışı kazançlarıyla meşgüllerdir.
Kırgız Anayasasına göre her vatandaşın hakları eşittir. Demokratik sistem ve Pazar
ekonomisi her insana sosyal ve ekonomik gelişme ve normal yaşam standardlarını sağlıyor.
Böylece, Türklerin ekonomik gelişmeleri pozitif bir yönde gelişmektedir.
SONUÇ
Kırgızistan’da yaşayan Ahıska Türkleri ülkenin ekonomik, sosyal, eğitim, kültürel ve siyasi
gelişmelerinde kendilerine ait olan rölünü oynuyorlar. Ülkede yaşanan ekonomik ve siyasi
problemler ülkenin her vatandaşını etkiliyor, ama bu problemlere rağmen burada yaşayan 80
millet arasında toleranslık ve diyalog yüksek derecededir. Türkler çalışkan millet oldukları için
ülkede iyi şartlarda gelişmelerini ve hayatlarını devam ediyorlar.
KAYNAKÇA
1. A. Bohr, Özbeklerle Mesketlerin Çatışması, Rl Prd
2. Der Spiegel, #24, 12 Haziran, 1989
3. Shakırov, Rasim, Ahıska Turklerı Ve Ahıska Turklerı’nın Basında Yer Alısı,
http://www.ahiskalilar.org/dosyalar/RASIMTEZ.pdf
4. Yunusov, Arif, Ahiskinskie (Meshetinskie) Turki: Dvajdi Deportirovannyi Narod,
http://www.ca-c.org/journal/cac-02-1999/st_20_junusov.shtml
5. www.assamblea.kg
6. Zeyrek, Y., Ahiska Araştirmalari, Ankara, 2006.
91
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 КЫРГЫЗ ТИЛИНДЕГИ КЕСИПТИК ЛЕКСИКАНЫ ИЗИЛДӨӨДӨГҮ МАСЕЛЕЛЕР
БГУ
Усмамбетов Б.Ж.
Кыргыз эли өзүнүн далай кылымды карыткан тарыхында жашоо ыңгайына ылайык
ар кыл кесипчиликте эмгектенип келгендиги маалым. Буга байланыштуу кыргыз тили элдик
терминдерге да бай. Булардын ичинен мал чарбачылыгына байланыштуу терминдер
өздөрүнүн байыркылыгы менен өзгөчө орунда турат.
Элибиздин турмуш-тиричилигинин бөтөнчөлүгүн ачып берүү, кыргыз тилинин
тарыхын тактоо, бул аркылуу жалпы эле тилдин өнүгүү мыйзам ченемин аныктоо өңдүү
орчундуу маселелерди терең жана ар тараптуу чечүү азыркы мезгилдин талабы.
Кесиптик лексиканы жыйнап иликтөө жана изилдөө иштери Россияда XVIIIкылымда башталган. Маселен, В. Бурнашевдин эки томдук терминалогиялык сөздүгү, В.И.
Далдын төрт томдук түшүндүрмө сөздүктөрү басылып чыккан.
Ал эми топтолгон материалдарга линвистикалык жактан иликтөө жүргүзүү өткөн
кылымдын элүүнчү жана алтымышынчы жылдарына таандык (Толыкина, 1954; Литвинов,
1955; Косолский, 1951; Трубачев, 1963;). Андагы козголгон маселелер келечекте жалпы тил
илиминин теориялык жана практикалык жактан өнүгүшүнө чоң таасир тийгизген.
Түрк тилдеринде кесиптик лексиканы изилдөө биринчилерден болуп өзбек тилчиси
С. Ибрагимовдун илимий эмгектерин белгилей кетсек болот (Ибрагимов, 1949; 1950; 1959;
1961;). Анын соңунан жекеге түрк тилдериндеги кесиптик лексикага байланыштуу бир нече
илимий эмгектер жарык көрдү (Маматов, 1955; Дадаханова, 1963; Баратов, 1971; Оторов,
1974; Рахимова, 1983; ж.б.). Кыргыз тил илиминде да кесиптик лексикага байланыштуу
кыйла эмгектер жазылып, диссертациялык иштер корголгон (Дүйшөналиева, 1969;
Назаралиев, 1971; Биялиев, 1972; Юсупова, 1975; Абдувалиев, 1982; Усмамбетов, 2000).
Атайын эмгектердеги жыйналган факт-материалдар жана лингвистикалык иликтөөлөр
кыргыз тил илиминин теориялык жана практикалык жактан өнөгүшүнө чоң өбөлгө түздү.
Бирок, ошентсе да, кеп болуп жаткан маселе боюнча тереңдетип иликтөөнү, тактоону талап
кылган проблемалар да жок эмес.
Арийне, кесиптик лексиканы өзүнө таандык бөтөнчөлүгү бар,тактап айтканда, ал “тилдин жалпы сөздүк корундагы ар кандай кесипчиликке байланыштуу жана күнүмдүк
турмушта анча кеңири колдонулбай турган сөздөр” (Сороколетов, 1957, 122;).
Тил илиминде кесиптик лексиканын колдонуш чөйрөсүнө карай эки топко бөлүп
каралат: 1) элге кеңири түшүнүктүү эмес, кесиби боюнча байланышкан адамдардын
кебинде гана кеңири колдонулган жана ошол кесипте иштеген адамдар үчүн гана
түшүнүктүү болгон сөздөр; 2) колдонуш чөйрөсү кеңейип, белгилүү кесиптеги тар чөйрөдө
гана эмес, кеңири колдонулуп, жалпы элдик сөзгө айланып кеткен сөздөр. Бирок,
жогорудагы биринчи топко кирген сөздөрдүн бардыгы эле жалпы элдик тилге мүнөздүү
эмес деп айтууга болбойт. Бул же тигил өндүрүштүк тармак боюнча заттардын аттары,
көрүнүштөрү, процесстери чагылдырылган кесиптик сөздөр башка адамдар үчүн жалпы
жонунан түшүнүктүү болгону менен, ошол кесиптеги адамдарга гана таандык. Башка
кесиптеги адамдар ал сөздөрдүн көбүн түшүнүшөт жана өздөрүнүн кебинде өтө сейрек
колдонушат.
Кесиптик лексиканын көпчүлүгү адабий тилде аз колдонулуп, айрым диалектиде
(говордо) гана орун алгандыгы, жалпы эле кесипчиликтин өнүгүшүндө бардык эле
аймактарда бир кылка эместиги жана аларды белгилөөчү сөздөр боюнча да
айрымачылыктардын болушу изилдөөнүн кыйла терең жүргүзүлүшүнө өбөлгө түзөт.
Маселен, тигил же бул диалектиде кездешкен нерсени туюндуруучу сөздөр экинчи бир
92
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 диалектиде кездешпейт, же болбосо, тескерисинче. Мындай аталыштар белгилүү бир
тармакка таандык кесиптик лексиканын байышына шарт түзөт. Андай сөздөрдүн
кайсынысы келечекте адабий тилдин нормасы катары кабыл алынышы белгисиз
болгондуктан улам, аларга чек коюуга мүмкүн эмес. Ошондой эле кесиптик кээ бир атоолор
өзүнүн чөйрөсүндө активдүү колдонушу менен жалпы элдик сөзгө айланып, адабий тилдин
лексикасына синонимдик катышты түзүүгө да жөндөмдүү болушу ыктымал.
Кесиптик сөздөрдүн да диалектилик (говордук) сөздөр сыктуу колдонуш чөйрөсү
чектелүү. Бирок, кесиптик сөздөр диалектик сөздөрдөн олутуу түрдө айырмаланат: 1)
кесиптик лексиканын колдонуш чөйрөсү ариалдык жактан чектелиш эмес, социалдык
жактан чектелиши менен айырмаланат; 2) кесиптик лексика диалектик сөздөргө караганда
адабий тилдин нормасына өтүү мүмкүнчүлүгү алда канча кеңири.
Жалпы элдик сөздөр менен кесиптик чөйрөдө колдонулган сөздөрдүн арасында
өзгөрүүлөр болуп турат. Диалектилик, кесиптик жагындагы арго (чектелүү чөйрөдөгү)
сөздөр болгон сөз бирдиктери азыркы жалпы элдик сөзгө да кирет. Кээ бир жалпы элдик
сөздөр жаңы маанини алып, тар чөйрөдө
колдонулган сөзгө
да айланып кетет
(Рахимова,1983,9;).
Кесиптик лексика белгилүү кесипке мүнөздүүлүгү боюнча илимий терминдерге
жакын болот. Бирок алардын ортосунда да айрым өзгөчүлүктөр бар: кесиптик сөздөр
терминдерге коюулуучу кээ бир (бир маанилүүлүк, системалуулук стилдик жактан
нейтралдуулук) талаптарга жооп бербейт. Алардын терминдик касиетке ээ болуусу үчүн,
адабий тилде алган ордун же болбосо ошол кесиптин чөйрөсүндө активдүү колдонулушуна
карай шартталышы керек.
Кесиптик лексика терминологияда да элдик терминдердин курамына кирет. Жалпы
терминалогия маселеси өзүнүн ичине элдик (кадыресе) жана илимий (теориялык)
терминдерди камтыйт. Элдик терминдерге кесипчилик чөйрөсүндө , оозеки сүйлөө кебинде
нерселердин атын атоо, белгилүү түшүнүктү туюнтуу үчүн кызмат кылган терминдер кирет.
Илимий терминге теориялык ой жүгүртүүнүн зарылчылыгынан пайда болгон адистер
тарабынан жасалма (искусственный) жол менен түзүлгөн терминдерди кошууга болот. Бул
жерден белгилей кетчүү нерсе, тилибизде колдонулган сөзбү, же терминби экөө тең эле
жаратылыштын кубулуштардын, предметтердин адамдын аң-сезиминде чагылдырылып,
аны белгилүү тыбыштык түзүлүш менен атайт да, пикир алышуунун каражаттарына
айланат. Бир нерсени атоо, туюнтуу функциясы сөзгө да, түшүнүктү атаган терминге да
тиешелүү болуп, термин менен сөздүн аты (аталышы) акырындык менен ишке ашып, ал
аркылуу ага туура келген түшүнүктү пайда кылуу үчүн негиз түзүлөт. Мындайча айтканда,
жалпы элге түшүнүктүү лексиканы пайда кылып, илимий (теориялык) терминдердин
базасын кеңейишине өбөлгө түзөт (Волыгина, 1961, 27; Галкина-Федорук, 1962; Шерба,
1945, 182;).
Эмгегибизде кыскача болсо да, терминология маселесинин теориялык негизин
түзгөн белгилүү орус жана түрколог окумуштууларынын жоболоруна жана алардагы кайчы
пикирлерге токтолмокчубуз (Виноградов, 1947; 1951; Винокур, 1939; Лотте, 1941; 1931;
1948; 1961; Реформатский, 1960; 1961; Булаховский, 1953; Будагов, 1958; Баскаков, 1959;
1961;). Маселен, проф. Г.О. Винокур терминди өзгөчө
сөздөр эмес, алар өзгөчө
функциядагы гана сөздөр катары, анын мүнөздүү өзгөчөлүгүн толук чагылдыра алган эмес.
Ал эми В.Виноградов болсо, сөз баарынан мурда, полинативдүү жана
дифинитивдүү функцияны аткарарына басым жасайт. Башкача айтканда, ал - так
белгилөөчү каражат. Ошондой учурда гана ал жөнөкөй белги же болбосо логикалык жактан
так аныктаган каражат болуп эсептелет. В.В. Виноградовдун пикирине караганда түшүнүккө
ачыктык, тактык киргизүүдө логикалык маанини өзгөчө зарыл экендигин белгилегендиги
ачык байкалат.
93
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Проф. А.А. Реформатскийдин аныктоосунда: “Термин-бир нерсенин аталышын
жана түшүнүктү билдирүүчү сөздөрдүн бир мааниде болушун көздөгөн, орду өзгөчө
чектелген атайын алынган сөздөр. Мындай сөздөр илимде, техникада, саясатта жана
дипломатияда өзгөчө ролду ойнойт” -дейт. Ушул аныктаманы, биздин байкашыбызга
караганда, түрколог Н.А. Баскаков да колдоого алып: “Термин - белгиленген түшүнүккө дал
келген туруктуу бир маанилүүлүк, б.а., ошол терминология тармагынын ичинде башка
терминдерге байланыштуу болгон, өзүнүн мааниси боюнча бир маанилүү жана
системалаштырылып колдонулган мүнөздөгү сөз же сөз айкашы” - деп берет.
Акыркы жылдарда илимий терминологиянын теориялык жана практикалык
актуалдуу маселелерин иштеп чыгуу боюнча көптөгөн монографиялык эмгектер жаралды
(Как работать под терминологией, 1968; Современные проблемы терминологии в науке и
технике, 1969; Лингвистические проблемы научно-технической терминологии, 1970;
Проблемы языка науки и техники, 1970; Структурное и прикладное языкознание, Б.У.,
1965;1986).
Кыргыз тилинде термин жана терминология маселе өзүнүн алгачкы башатын 1926жылы баштаган, бул жылдары Республикалык терминологиялык коммиссия түзүлгөн.
Кыйла сөздүктөр түзүлүп, 30-жылдары К.Тыныстанов жана Т.Байжиевдин терминологиялык
сөздүгү жарык көргөн (Тыныстанов, 1934). Терминология боюнча атайы изилдөө иштери
50-жылдарда жанданып бир нече илимий эмгектер жарык көрөт (Шүкүров, 1954;1955;1956).
Кыргыз терминологиясынын илимий негизине тиешелүү теориялык пикирлер белгилүү
окумуштуу Б.М.Юнусалиевдин эмгектеринде да көңүл бурулуп, терминология маселеси
атайын планда изилденбесе да, “Кыргыз лексикологиясында” орус тилинин Улуу Октябрь
социалистик
революциясынын
кийинки
таасирине
байланыштуу
терминдерди
өздөштүрүүнүн жана анын ыкмалары көрсөтүлүп, тил өз ара карым-катнаштын тиги же бул
тарыхый шартка ылайык өнүгүп өсүшү, же баюу жолдоруна токтолуп, кыргыз лексикасынын
толукталышын шарттаган өзгөчөлүктөрүнө айрыкча көңүл бөлгөн (Юнусалиев, 1960, 234240;). Ж.Ж. Шүкүров татаал сөздөрдүн жасалыш ыкмасына арналган макаласына татаал
терминдердин жасалуу жана кабыл алынуу өзгөчөлүктөрүн илимий жактан айтканда тактап
берүү милдетин коёт (Шүкүров, 1955, 59-69;). Терминдин жасалышы, алардын ички
грамматикалык өзгөчөлүктөрү, тилдеги жалпы эле сөз жасоо ыкмаларынын негизинде
аныктала тургандыгы, улуттук терминологиянын калыптаныш кырдаалында төл сөздөрдүн
жана башка тилдерден өздөштүрүлүш ролу жөнүндө терминологиялык сөздүктөрдө,
энциклопедиялык материалдарда орду менен берилиши, улуттук терминологияны илимий
изилдөөнүн милдеттери, ошондой эле анын түзүлүш жана толукталуу жана калыптануу
булактары, бул жагдайда орус тилинин мааниси жөнүндө кыргыз тилинде кеңири планда
биринчи жолу Б.О.Орузбаеванын эмгектеринде иштелип чыккан (Орузбаева,
1964;1968;1963;). Бул эмгектер илимий изилдөө
ишинде, сөздүк түзүүдө
кеңири
колдонууга ээ болду. Терминдердин жасалышы боюнча илимий грамматикаларда да кыйла
маалыматтар берилген.
Кыргыз улуттук терминологиясынын проблемаларынын кыргыз тилинде илимий
изилдөө эки аспектиде - элдик терминологиялык (башкача айтканда профессионалдык)
лексиканын маселелерин жана илимий
терминология маселелерин камтыйт
(Дүйшөналиева, 1969; Назаралиев, 1971; Биялиев, 1972;). Биринчи тобунда - (улуттук
тилде эзелтен бери чарба тармактарында мал чарбачылык, курулуш жана аңчылык)
кесиптик жактан колдонулуп келген сөздөрдөгү терминдик касиеттер тил илиминде
иштелип чыккан критерийлердин негизинде талданып, айрым сөздөрдүн семантикалык
жана этимологиялык өзгөчөлүктө рүн изилдөөгө чоң көңүл бурулат. Экинчи тобунда
илимий тармактык терминология (коомдук-саясий, табигий илимдер боюнча терминдер)
талданып, аталган терминология системаларын түзгөн сөздөрдүн пайда болуу
булактарынын, терминдик касиеттерин, алардын лексико-грамматикалык өзгөчөлүктөрү,
терминдердин окуу куралдарында жана басма сөз бетинде колдонулушу, андагы байкалган
чаржайыттыктар,
тартипке
келтирүүнүн
чаралары,
ошондой
эле
тиешелүү
терминологиялык сө здүктөр менен башка колдонмолордун алдындагы айырмалар сыяктуу
94
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 маселелер талдоого алынган (Исабекова, 1971; Базаркулова, 1978; Закирова, 1978;).
Жогорудагы эмгектерде тиешелүү тармактардын терминологиясы боюнча бир кыйла
баалуу байкоолор, сунуштар, семантикалык жана этимологиялык экскурстар берилет.
Кыргыз тилиндеги кесиптик лексиканын бир тармагы болгон кол өнөрчүлүгүнө
тийиштүү сөздөрдү иликтөөдө төмөндөгүдөй жыйынтыктарга келүүгө болот. Аталган
лексиканын бир тобу эне тилибиздин сөздүк курамынан орун алып бүгүнкү адабий
тилибизде кеңири орун алган. Бардыгынын колдонулуш чөйрөсү, жалпы эле түшүнүктүүлүгү
бир кылка эмес. Алардын бир кыйласы кол өнөрчүлүк кесибинин улам барган сайын эл
арасына кеңири тарашынан улам өзүнүн тар чөйрөсүнөн чыгып элге кеңири сиңип, жалпы
эле кыргыз тилинин энчисине айлана баштаса, көпчүлүк сөздөр, тескерисинче
колдонулушу жагынан чектелип, кесиптик тар чөйрөдө гана өмүр сүрөт.
Ар кайсы чөйрөдө жашап, бирдей кесип кылышкан чеберлердин оозеки кебинде
колдонулган сөздөрдүн уюткусу жалпысынан бардык эле аймактарда, негизинен, бирдей
экендигин көрөбүз. Аларда кыргыз элине тең орток, түшүнүктүү элдик сөздөр катары
карасак болот. Бирок, муну менен катар аталган кесиптин сөздөрү аймактар боюнча кээ
бир айырмачылыктарга да ээ.
Кол өнөрчүлүгүнө тийиштүү сөздөрдү таралыш аймагы, диалектилик өзгөчөлүгү
боюнча а) жалпы элге бирдей тарап, бирдей мааниде колдонулган, б) тыбыштык составы,
морфологиялык түзүлүшү боюнча айырмаланган, в) семантикалык мааниси жагынан
өзгөргөн, г) бир жерде айтылып экинчи бир жерде жолукпаган сөздөр деп бөлүштүрүүгө
болот.
Тил менен эл тарыхы, көркөм дүйнөсү, жалпы эл маданияты тыгыз байланышта
экендиги белгилүү, муну кол өнөрчүлүккө тийиштүү сөздөрдөн көрөбүз. Буга
салыштырмалуу туруктуу эпитет катары колдонулган, ошондой эле таамай айтылган учкул
сөздөр, макал, лакаптарда ж.б. кеңири орун алган сөздөр күбө боло алат.
Сөз болуп жаткан кесиптик лексиканын өнүгүшүндө тилибиздин ички
мүмкүнчүлүктөрүнүн эсебинен, башкача айтканда, сөз жасоо жолдорунун эсебинен пайда
болгон сөздөр басымдуулук кылса да, элибиздин башка элдер менен бир нече жүз жылдык
экономикалык –маданий тыгыз байланышта коңшулаш жашашынын натыйжасында
алардан да бир топ сөздөр кирген. Бирок алардын көпчүлүгү диалектилик (говордук)
мүнөздө экендигин белгилей кетүү абзел. Алардын айрымдары биригип кетип, бир эле
бүтүн сөздү түзүп калса, айрымдары сөз тибиндеги терминдердин курамында учурайт.
КОЛДОНУЛГАН АДАБИЯТТАР:
1. Виноградов В.В. Вступительные слова. // Вопросы терминологии. М: АН СССР.
1961.-3-24 с.с.
1. Вспокур Г.О. О некаторых явлениях словообразовательных в русской технической
терминологии. ТР МИИФЛИ, 1989, т. 5
2. Ибрагимов С. Профессиональная лексика узбекского языка. Ташкент: Изд. АН Узб.
ССР, 1961.
3. Литвинов М.И. Ремесленно-промысловая терминология в словаре. В.И.Даля. М.,
1955.
4. Орузбаева Б.О. Сөз. Бишкек, 1994.
5. Рахимова Р.К. Татарская профессиональная лексика. Казань, 1983.
6. Усманова С. Лексика орнаментации текстиля в туркменского языке. АКД, Душанбе,
1971
7. Юнусалиев Б.М. Киргизская лексикология: Ф, Киргоиздат, 1959.
8. Юсупова М. Килемчилик жана шырдак жасоого байланыштуу терминдердин
лексика –семантикалык бөлүнүшүнө карата. //Кыргыз терминология маселелери .
Ф.: Илим, 1975.
95
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 DÜNYA BANKASININ PROJELERİNİN KIRGIZİSTAN EKONOMİSİNDEKİ YERİ
Osman Salih KADI
Uluslararası Atatürk Alatoo Üniversitesi
Filiz KADI
Uluslararası Atatürk Alatoo Üniversitesi
ÖZET
Sovyetler Birliği’nin dağılması ve soğuk savaş döneminin iki kutuplu sistemle beraber
sona ermesiyle birlikte bağımsızlığını kazanan Orta Asya devletleri uluslararası ilişkilerde büyük
bir önem kazanmıştır. Orta Asya bölgesi, ihtiva ettiği yeraltı ve yer üstü zenginlikleri ve en
önemlisi 20. yüzyılın ve günümüzün stratejik hammaddesi petrol ve doğalgaz bakımından zengin
oluşu nedeniyle, ikinci Ortadoğu olarak değerlendirilmekte veya Ortadoğu’nun sınırları Orta Asya
Ülkelerini de kapsayacak şekilde genişletilmektedir (Blank, 1995:3).
Bölge ülkeleri bağımsızlıklarını kazanmalarıyla birlikte ekonomik sistemlerini yeniden
yapılandırma sürecine girmişler ve bu süreçte uluslararası mali kuruluşlardan yardım almışlarıdır.
Bölge ülkelerinden birisi olan Kırgızistan da bu süreçte, bir çok uluslararası mali kuruluşa üye
olmuştur. Ekonomik ve sosyal kalkınma adına bu kuruluşlardan yardım almaktadır. Kırgızistan’a
en fazla kredi veren kuruluşların içinde Dünya Bankası’nın payı ve önemi oldukça yüksek
düzeyde gerçekleşmektedir.
1. ULUSLARARASI MALİ KURULUŞLARIN KIRGIZİSTAN EKONOMİSİNE KATKILARI
Kırgızistan bağımsızlık sonrası süreçte bir çok uluslararası kuruluşa üye olmuştur.
Kırgızistan’ın üye olduğu uluslararası kuruluşlar, Birleşmiş Milletler (BM), Avrupa Güvenlik ve
İşbirliği Teşkilatı (AGİT), Avrupa Atlantik Ortaklık Konseyi (AAOK), Dünya Bankası, Uluslararası
İşçi Teşkilatı (ILO), Birleşmiş Milletler Eğitim Bilim ve Kültür Teşkilatı (UNESCO), Uluslararası
Para Fonu (IMF), Dünya Sağlık Teşkilatı (WHO), Uluslararası Tarımsal Kalkınma Fonu (IFAD),
Uluslararası Finans Kurumu (IFC), Uluslararası Kalkınma Ajansı (IDA), BM Kalkınma Programı
(UNDP), Çok Taraflı Yatırım Garanti Ajansı (MIGA), BM Gıda ve Tarım Teşkilatı (FAO),
Ekonomik İşbirliği Teşkilatı (EİT), İslam Konferansı Teşkilatı (İKT), Dünya Ticaret Örgütü (DTÖ),
Uluslararası Sivil Havacılık Teşkilatı (ICAO), Dünya Posta Birliği, Dünya Turizm Teşkilatı, İslam
Kalkınma Bankası, Kara Taşımacılığı Teşkilatı, Dünya Meteoroloji Teşkilatı, BM Asya Pasifik
Ekonomik ve Sosyal Komisyonu (ESCAP), Asya Kalkınma Bankası, Uluslararası Atom Enerji
Ajansı (IAEA) ve Bağlantısızlar Harketi (Gözlemci)’dir.
Başkent Bişkek’te, Avrupa Birliği, Uluslararası Kalkınma Ajansı, Çocuk Fonu, Dünya
Bankası, Uluslararası Para Fonu, Alman İşbirliği Ajansı, Danimarka İşbirliği Ajansı, TİKA,
Uluslararası Kızılhaç ve Kızılay Dernekleri Federasyonu, Barış Gönüllüleri, Amerikan İşbirliği
Ajansı (USIAD)’ın temsilcilikleri bulunmaktadır.
Kırgızistan için bağımsızlık sonrası başlayan, ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel değişim
içerisinde uluslararası mali kuruluşlar önemli yer tutmaktadır. Bağımsızlığın ilk yıllarından itibaren
Kırgızistan Cumhuriyeti, dünya ile bütünleşme adına uluslararası kuruluşlara üye olmaya
başlamış ve ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel anlamda yaşanan değişim sürecinde bu kuruluşlardan
yardım almış ve almaya devam etmektedir. Kırgızistan Cumhuriyet’i 1992 – 2000 yılları arasında
toplam 1.939.3 milyon ABD Doları dış mali yardım almıştır.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Tablo 1: 1992-2000 Arası Farklı Sektörlere Verilen Dış Mali Yardım (milyon ABD)
Sektör
Miktar
İletişim
Enerji
Telekomünikasyon
Sulama
Tarım
Mali Sektör
Eğitim
Sağlık
Sosyal Koruma
Kamu Yönetimi
KOBİ gelişimi için
Sanayi
Yerel para ve bütçe desteği
Turizm
Tabiat Koruma
Diğer
Toplam
Kaynak: Kırgız Ulusal İstatistik Enstitüsü
243.14
196.21
48.5
46
92.71
43.5
28.35
102
17
16.54
58.17
114.43
908.47
16.28
4
4
1939.3
Tabloda bahsedilen sektörlere yönelik gerçekleşen yardımlar, uluslararası mali kuruluşlar
ve devletler bazında verilen kredi ve karşılıksız yardımlardır. Bu yardımlar içerisinde en büyük
paya sahip olan uluslararası kuruluşlar, Dünya Bankası, Asya Kalkınma Bankası ve Uluslararası
Para Fonu ve Avrupa İmar ve Kalkınma Bankası’dır.
Tablo 2: 1992-2000 Yılları Arasında Uluslararası Mali Kuruluşlar Tarafından Verilen Yardımlar
(Milyon Dolar)
Krediyi Veren Kuruluş
Verilmesi Öngörülen Tutar
Verilen Tutar
Dünya Bankası
606
436.8
Asya Kalkınma Bankası
422.2
266.9
Uluslararası Para Fonu
289.7
246.3
Avrupa İmar ve KalkınmaBankası
108.6
92.5
İslam Kalkınma Bankası
33.1
14.2
Tarımsal Kalkınma İçin Uluslararası Fon
11.5
2.8
Arap Ekonomik Gelişmesi Kuveyt Fonu
18.9
5.4
OPEC Fonu
8.6
0.7
Kuzey Gelişme Fonu
5.6
5.1
Toplam
1504.2
1070.7
Kaynak: Kırgız Cumhuriyeti: Yeni Perspektifler, KTMÜ Matbaası, Bişkek, 2001, s. 61-62.
IMF tarafından verilen krediler IMF ve Kırgız hükümetinin ortaklaşa yürüttüğü programlar
için verilmiştir. Diğer kuruluşların verdiği krediler ise sektörlerin gelişmesine yönelik projelere
verilmiştir.
97
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 2001 yılı içerisinde ise Dünya Bankası tarafından 7.53 milyon ABD Doları kredi, Asya
Kalkınma Bankası tarafından 33.44 milyon ABD Doları kredi verilmiştir1.
3. DÜNYA BANKASI’NIN KIRGIZİSTAN EKONOMİSİNE KATKILARI
Kırgızistan Cumhuriyet’i, 8 Mayıs 1992’de IMF’e üye olması neticesinde otomatik olarak
Dünya Bankası’na da üye olmuştur. Kırgız Cumhuriyet’i üyeliğe kabul edilişinden bugüne kadar
geçen zaman içerisinde, ekonomisinin gelişimine, fakirliğin azaltılmasına ve sosyal
dengesizliklerin giderilmesine yönelik Dünya Bankası’nın kredilerinden, ekonomik sektörlerin her
alanına yönelik olmak üzere yararlanmıştır. Kullanılan kredilerin hepsine yakınını, IBRD ve IDA
ortaklaşa vermişlerdir.
Dünya Bankası, bir geçiş ekonomisi olan Kırgızistan ekonomisinin gelişimine yönelik
12’si tamamlanmış olmak üzere 30 civarında projeye destek sağlamıştır. Bu projelerin bazıları;
Rehabilitasyon Kredi Projesi, Koyunculuğu Geliştirme Projesi, Tarımsal Finans Projesi, Tarımı
Destekleme Hizmetleri Projesi, Sel Acil Durum Projesi, İkinci Tarımsal Finans Projesi, Çiftlik
Sulama Projesi, Kırsal Alan Su ve Hijyen Projesi, Orta Asya Sınır Bio Çeşitliliği Projesi, Köy
Yatırım Projesi, Özel Teşebbüsü Destek Projesi, Finansal Sektör Uyum Projesi, Kamu Sektörü
Kaynak Yönetimi Uyum Projesi, Toprak ve Gayrimenkul Kayıt Projesi, Yapısal Tanzimi
Sağlamlaştırma Projesi, Yapısal Tanzimi Sağlamlaştırma Kredisi İçin Teknik Yardım Kredisi,
Yönetim Yapısal Uyum Projesi, Rehabilitasyon Kredi Projesi, Haberleşme Projesi,
Özelleştirme ve Teşebbüs Sektör Uyum Projesi, Sosyal Güvenlik Ağı Projesi, Sağlık Sektörü
Reformu Projesi, Enerji ve Bölge Isıtma Rehabilitasyon Projesi, Kırgız Şehir Ulaşım Projesi ve
İkinci Sağlık Sektörü Reformu Projesi şeklindedir2.
Kırgızistan Cumhuriyet’i 1993 – 2000 yılları arasında, Dünya Bankası’ndan 606 milyon
ABD Doları kredi için anlaşma yapmış ve 436.8 milyon dolar kredi kullanmıştır3.
3.1. Tarım Sektörüne Yönelik Projeler
3.1.1. Rehabilitasyon Kredi Projesi
Rehabilitasyon Kredi Projesi 13/05/1993 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/06/1999 tarihinde
bitmesi öngörülmüştür. Projenin toplam bedeli 60.3 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen
kredi miktarı 60 milyon USD olmuştur. Proje, tarım ve sanayi sektörünün rehabilitasyonunu
hedeflemiştir4. Proje ile
3.1.2. Koyunculuğu Geliştirme Projesi
Koyunculuğu Geliştirme Projesi 14/05/1996 yılında başlamış ve 30/09/2001 yılında
bitmesi ve Tarım Bakanlığı tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür. Projenin toplam bedeli 16.8
milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 11.6 milyon USD olmuştur5.
Koyun ve yün çifçiliğinin verimliliğinin ve karlılığının arttırılması,yün pazarlamacılığı ve
hayvan sağlığı hizmetlerini de içeren, çiftçilere yönelik bir çok hizmetin özelleştirilmesi, doğal
otlak kaynaklarının çifçiler tarafından korunması ve idaresinin geliştirilmesi hedeflenmiştir. Proje,
bu hedefleri gerçekleştirmek için
Koyun ve yün çifçilerinin çifçi birlikleri ve grupları şeklinde biraraya getirmeyi
1 Kırgızistan’ın 2010 Yılına Kadar Kalkınmasının Temel Kompleksi, ( Bişkek: KTMÜ Matbaası, 2003), s.252. 2 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Results.asp?st=DetSrc&Coun=KG 3 Kırgız Cumhuriyeti: Yeni Perspektifler. ( Bişkek: KTMÜ Matbaası, 2001), s. 61‐62. 4 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008512 5 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008513 98
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 ödül fiyatlarla kaliteli kuzu ve yün üretimini teşvikle beraber, rekabetçi piyasa yapısını geliştirmeyi
ayrıca özel çifçiler için eğitim ve danışmanlık hizmetleri yapılmasını içermiştir.
Yürülüğe koyma problemlerine rağmen, projenin kazançları kısmen çiflilik düzeyine
yansıyan gelişmelerle, kısmen zirai kadrolar arasındaki daha iyi bir analizin gelişiminde görülebilir
hale gelmeye başlamıştır.
3.1.3. Tarımsal Finans Projesi
Kırsal Finans Projesi 05/06/1997 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/06/2000 tarihinde bitmesi ve
Kırgız Tarımsal Finans Şirketi tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür. Proje bedeli 21 milyon USD
ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 16 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir6.
Proje kısa vadede, ticari banka kredisi elde edemeyen tarım sektörü çalışanlarına ödünç
vermek için kurumsal düzenlemeler yapılmasını, orta ve uzun vadede ise kırsal kesimlerde
yaşayanlara, kalkınan toplum esaslı finansal hizmetler için temel hazırlanmasını hedeflemiştir.
3.1.4. Tarımı Destekleme Hizmetleri Projesi
Tarımı Destekleme Hizmetleri Projesi 07/051998 tarihinde başlamış ve 31/12/2003
tarihinde bitmesi ve Tarım Bakanlığı tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür. Projenin toplam
bedeli 30.2 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 14.98 milyon USD olarak
tespit edilmiştir7.
Tarımı Destekleme Hizmetleri Projesi
Kırgız tarımının verimliliğini, karlılığını ve
sürekliliğini arttırmayı hedeflemiştir. Projenin altı bileşeni vardır:
1. Toprak ve tarım reformu, hükümetin toprak dağıtımı programının uygulanmasına
yardımcı olacak, hükümet ofisleri ve tarım topluluklarına kapasite sağlayacak, ayrıca
toprak satışlari için prosüdür ve politikalar tesbit edecektir.
2. Kırsal danışmanlık ve kalkınma bileşeni, Kırsal Danışmanlık ve Kalkınma Merkezleri ve
bunları koordine edecek bir sekretarya kuracaktır. Ayrıca çifçi eğitimine de yardımcı
olacaktır.
3. Tohum endüstrisi kalkındırma bileşeni, yeni bir irsiyet plasmasının kazanımı
geliştirilmesini içermektedir.
4. Ürün korumasi ve bitki karantinası bileşeni, haşere ile mücadelede ilaç kullanımı ile ilgili
düzenlemelerin yasal çerçevesini çizmektedir.
5. Tarımsal piyasa bilgi sistemi, endüstri bitkilerini toplayacak, işleme tabi tutacak ve
dağıtacaktır.
6. Tarım ve Su Kaynakları Bakanlığı, bir proje uygulama birimi kuracaktır.
Bütün proje unsurları etkin bir şekilde yürülüğe konulmaya çalışılmaktadır. Gelişmeler
hedeflere ulaşılacağını göstermektedir. Çiftçiler sağlanan hizmetlerden, artan bir şekilde
faydalanmışlardır. Tarımla ilgili reformlar gelişmiş, sadece onarılması gereken az sayıda, eski
çiftlikler kalmıştır. Zirai danışmanlık hizmetleri çerçevesinde çiftçiler teknik ve ticari tavsiyelerle
doğrultusunda desteklenerek, grupların oluşturulmasına yardımcı olunmaktadır. Tohum
sektöründe de çok yönlü faaliyetler iyi bir şekilde ilerlemektedir.
6 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008520 7 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P040721 99
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 3.1.5. Sel Acil Durum Projesi
Sel Acil Durum Projesi, 26/01/1999 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/09/2003 tarihinde bitmesi ve
Tarım Bakanlığı tarafından yürütülmüştür. Projenin toplam bedeli 14.1 milyon USD ve proje
doğrultusunda verilen kredi 10 milyon USD olarak tepit edilmiştir8.
Sel Acil Durum Projesi, nehirlerdeki hasarlı sel önleme bölgelerinin, altyapısının
rehabilitesi veya yeniden inşası, sulama altyapısının rehabilitesi veya yeniden inşasını
içermektedir. Projenin iki bileşeni vardır:
1. Sel koruma rehabilitasyonu, yeniden inşası ve sulama altyapısı bileşeni, beş nehirdeki
aşınmış bentlerin rehabilitasyonu ve tamirini, ayrıca 23 koruyucu sistemin
rehabilitasyonunu ve yeniden inşasını finanse edecektir.Bileşen bunun yanı sıra 16 farklı
tasarıda nehir yataklarının içindeki ve dışındaki seçilen sulama altyapısının rehabilitesi
veya yeniden inşasını da finanse edecektir.
2. Proje yönetimi ve uygulama desteği, projelerin günlük yönetimi için proje uygulama birimi
kuracaktır.Fizibilite çalışmalarının yapılması için danışmanlık firmalarıyla anlaşma
yapılacaktır.
Bu proje altındaki altyapı servisi, gelecekte olabilecek sellere karşı korumayı arttırarak,
sulama alanlarına su sağlanmasını yeniden oluşturmuştur.
3.1.6. İkinci Tarımsal Finans Projesi
İkinci Tarımsal Finans Projesi 20/06/1999 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/06/2004 tarihinde
bitmesi ve Kırgız Tarımsal Finans Şirketi tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür. Projenin toplam
bedeli 22.9 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 15 milyon USD olarak tespit
edilmiştir9.
İkinci Tarımsal Finans Projesi, ilk Tarım Finans projesi (RFP)’nin devamıdır. İkinci
Tarımsal Finans Projesinin temel hedefleri; Küçük ölçekli çiftliklerin ve tarım müteşebbislerinin de
dahil olduğu çok sayıda üreticiye hizmet verecek dayanıklı bir tarım finans sisteminin gelişmesini
sağlamak, kırsal alanlardaki yoksulluğun azaltılmasına katkıda bulunmak, tarımsal geliri arttırmak
için ekonomik faaliyetleri desteklemek ve yeterli teminatı olmayanlara kredi kullanma imkanları
sağlamaktır. Projenin kırsal finans ve kurumsal gelişim adı altında iki bileşeni vardır. Kırsal finans
bileşeni, Kırgız Tarım ve Finans Birliğine kredi sağlayacak ticari kredi hattını ve küçük çifçiler için
kredi hattından oluşmaktadır. Kurumsal gelişim bileşeni ise, Kırgız Tarımsal Finans Birliği’nin
çalışma etkinliğini geliştirmek ve finansal kurum olarak uzun süreli varlığını sürdürecek şekilde
güçlendirmek, ayrıca sosyal teminat ve küçük ölçekli kırsal iş gelişim hizmetlerine dayalı, eğitimi
içeren teknik yardımla ilgilenmektedir.
3.1.7. Çiftlik Sulama Projesi
Çiftlik Sulama projesi, 06/06/2000 tarihinde başlamış, 31/03/2007 tarihinde bitmesi ve
Tarım Bakanlığı tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür. Projenin toplam bedeli 29 milyon USD ve
proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi 20 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir10.
Çiftlik Sulama Projesi çerçevesinde, Kırgız Cumhuriyeti’ndeki sulanabilir alanlara
güvenilir ve sağlam su dağıtımı yoluyla, mahsülde üretim artışını sağlamak hedeflenmiştir. Projeyi
Tarım Bakanlığı su dairesi bölümü yürütmektedir.
8 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P062682 9 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P064585 10 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P049723 100
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 3.1.8. Kırsal Alan Su ve Hijyen Projesi
Kırsal Alan Su ve Hijyen Projesi, 04/12/2001 tarihinde başlamış, 21/10/2007 tarihinde
bitmesi ve Tarım Bakanlığı tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür.Projenin toplam bedeli 24.56
milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 15 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir11.
Kırgızistan Cumhuriyeti için hazırlanan Kırsal Alan Su ve Hijyen Projesi, Isık-Göl, Narın
ve Talas eyaletlerinin bütün köylerinde, halkın sahip olduğu su kaynaklarında, içilebilir suya erişim
imkanlarını geliştirmeyi hedeflemiştir. Ayrıca, kurumsal aile ve bireysel bazlarda, su ile ilgili
işlerdeki hijyen sağlığını geliştirmek de diğer hedef içerisindedir.Proje 2002 Nisan ayının sonuna
kadar etkili olamamıştır. Birimsel hedefler ile ilgili olarak, üç bölgede su sisteminin düzenlemesi
araştırılmaktadır.
3.1.9. Orta Asya Sınır Bio Çeşitliliği Projesi
Bu proje Kırgızistan, Kazakistan ve Özbekistan’ı kapsamıştır. Proje 1999 yılında
başlamıştır. Dünya Bankası proje doğrultusunda 4 milyon dolar kredi vermiştir12.
Proje hedefleri;Batı Tyan - Şan hudut bio çeşitliliğinin öncelikli hedefleri, Batı Tyan –Şan
bölgesinde yer alan eşsiz biolojik hayatın korunmasını desteklemek ve bölgede bio çeşitliliğin
korumasının kurumsal düzenlenmesidir.
Projenin hedeflerine ulaşmasına bakılacak olunursa; Çevresel koruma, sürdürülebilir
kalkınmanın kilit öncülükleri arasındadır. Son on yıl süresince özellikle kırsal kesimlerdeki sosyal
ve ekonomik durumunun kötüleşmesi, yerel halk için yetersiz gelir alternatifleri sebebiyle,
insanların yaşamlarını devam ettirebilmek için tabi kaynaklara bağlı kalmaya zorladı. Bu
bağlamda tabi kaynaklara karşı aşırı yülklenme onların yıpranmasını beraberinde getirmiştir.
Bu proje doğrultusunda, bölgede yer alan eşsiz biolojik hayatın korumasını destekleme
adına önemli mesafeler kat edilmiştir. Kırgız Cumhuriyeti sahasında proje, yerel toplumun arazi
alımında kullanılmak üzere, alıcının parasını depozito olarak teslim ettiği kimselerin ortaklığı ile
Sarı-Çelek, Beş-Aral gibi tabi kaynakların korunmasını arttıracağı düşünülmüştür.
3.1.10.Tarımsal Ticaret ve Pazarlama Projesi
Tarımsal Ticaret ve Pazarlama Projesi, 14/12/2004 tarihinde onaylamış, 31/12/2010
tarihine kadar devam etmesi planlan bir projedir. Proje maliyeti 12.98 milyon USD olarak tespit
edilmiş ve bu güne kadar 8.1. milyon USD’lik kısmı kullanılmıştır.13
Projenin amacı, uygulanan metodların aktive seviyesini, pazarlamayı, ve ticari girişimciliği
geliştirmek ve sayılarını yükseltmektir. Girişimci sayısının yüksalmasinin üretim organizasyonları
için önemli olduğunu vurgulayan projede diğer bir amaç ise özel girişimcilerin ve ticari
organizasyonların direk çalışmasını sağlamak ve Kırgız mallarının rekabetini artırmaktır. Bu
amaçla projede Pazar geliştirme ve Kredi kullanım elemanlarına yer verilmiştir. Proje %70’i
tarımsal pazarlama, %15’i tarımsal sanayi, % 10’u bankacılık, 55’i ise kamu yönetimine yöneliktir.
11 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P036977 12 www.worlbank.org.kg 13 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P049724 101
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 3.2. Kamu Sektörü ve Mali Sektöre Yönelik Projeler
3.2.1. Köy Yatırım Projesi
Köy Yatırım Projesi bağımsızlık sonrası gerçekleştirilen ilk projelerden birisidir. Projenin
toplam bedeli 18 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi 15 milyon USD olmuştur.
Projeyi Kırgızistan Başbakanlığı yürütmüştür14.
3.2.2. Özel Teşebbüsü Destek Projesi
Özel Teşebbüsü Destek Projesi, 17/01/1996 tarihinde başlamış, 30/06/2003 tarihinde
tamamlanması ve GOSKOM yatırım tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür. Projenin toplam
bedeli 20.3 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi 15 milyon USD olarak tespit
edilmiştir15.
Özel Teşebbüsü Destek Projesinin temel hedefi, özel teşebbüslerin piyasa sistemine
başarılı bir şekilde adapte olabilmeleri için onlara kredi ve teknik destekten oluşan entegre bir
programı sağlamaktır.Proje, özel sektör ekonomisinin, yatırımcılara etkin bir şekilde teknik yardım
sağlama yoluyla teşvik edilmesi için dizayn edilmiştir. Ayrıca yatırım kredi bileşeni çerçevesinde,
hükümet tarafından özel teşebbüsün ihracatına yönelik ve ithal ikame projeleri için, orta vadeli
yabancı döviz kredisi sağlayacak olan Teşebbüs Yeniden Yapılanması ve Gelişimi Fonu
kurulacaktır. Fonun kredileri özel teşebbüslere ve turizimin de dahil olduğu hizmet sektörüne
verilecektir. Kredi fonları %15 faiz oranıyla ve yedi yıla kadar vadeli olacaktır. Kredi beş yerel
banka yoluyla yönlendirilmektedir. Bu bağlamda yerel bankaların bankacılık faaliyetlerinin
gelişmesi yönünde yardımlar devam etmektedir.
3.2.3. Finansal Sektör Uyum Projesi
Finansal Sektör Uyum Projesi, 25/06/1996 tarihinde başlamış, 30/06/1998 tarihinde
tamamlanmıştır. Projenin toplam bedeli 45 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi
toplam bedel kadar gerçekleşmiştir. Proje Kırgızistan Cumhuriyeti Milli Bankası tarafından
yürütülmüştür. Dünya Bankası, bu projenin yürütülmesinde teknik yardım sağlaması için Teknik
Yardım Kredisi adı altında 3.4 milyon USD daha kredi olarak vermiştir16.
3.2.4. Kamu Sektörü Kaynak Yönetimi Uyum Projesi
Kamu Sektörü Kaynak Yönetimi Uyum Projesi, 16/04/1997 tarihinde başlamış,
31/12/1996 tarihinde ise tamamlanmıştır. Projenin toplam bedeli 60.3 milyon USD ve proje
doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 60 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir17. Projeyi Maliye
Bakanlığı yürütmüştür.
3.2.5. Toprak ve Gayrimenkul Kayıt Projesi
Toprak ve Gayrimenkul Kayıt Projesi 06/06/2000 tarihinde başlamış, 31/12/2005 tarihinde
tamamlanması ve Kırgızistan Devlet Kayıt Bürosu tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür.Projenin
toplam maliyeti 11.84 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilecek kredi miktarı 9.42 milyon USD
olarak tespit edilmiştir18.
14 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P073973 15 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008524 16 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P034095 17 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008521 18 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P049719 102
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Toprak ve gayrimenkul mal artışının gelişimini desteklemek, taşınmaz mal kaydı için,
güvenilir ve iyi çalışan bir sisteme geçiş yapmak yoluyla arazi ve gayrimenkul malların daha
yoğun ve etkin kullanımı, ayrıca arazi ve gayrimenkül mal piyasasının gelişimini desteklemek
hedeflenmiştir. Proje aynı zamanda, satış yönetimlerinin basitleştirilmesini ve finansal kiralamanın
gelişimini de amaçlamaktadır.
3.2.6. Yapısal Tanzimi Sağlamlaştırma Projesi
Yapısal Tanzimi Sağlamlaştırma Projesi 26/09/2000 tarihinde başlamış ve kredi miktarı
35 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir. Proje Başbakanlık ve Maliye Bakanlığı tarafından
yürütülmektedir19.
Proje çerçevesinde devletin gelirini arttırmaya yönelik yeni vergi sistemine geçişi
hedefleyen vergi reformları, rekabet ortamını geliştirmek, kamu hizmetlerinin finansal durumlarını
iyileştirmek ve özelleştirilmesine başlamak ve soyal kalkınmayı sürdürülebilir hale getirmek
hedeflenmiştir. Proje doğrultusunda dört elektrik dağıtım şirketi kurulmuş ve enerji tasarrufunda
önemli artışlar olmuştur. Parlamento serbest ekonomik bölgelerdeki bazı vergi sığınaklarını
ortadan kaldırma yönünde kanun kabul etmiştir. Vergi mevzuatında önemli değişiklikler
yapılmıştır.
3.2.7. Yapısal Tanzimi Sağlamlaştırma Kredisi İçin Teknik Yardım Kredisi
Kredi 22/06/2000 tarihinde onaylanmış ve kredi tutarı 5 milyon USD olarak tespit
edilmiştir20. Teknik yardım kredisi, yapısal tanzimi geliştirme kredisi altında, ülkenin kurumsal
kapasitesini güçlendirme ve yapılandırmaya yönelik yardım etmeyi, vergi geliri seferberliğini,
uluslararası bir gümrük danışmanlığı için finans sağlamayı ve gümrüklerin modernizasyonuna ve
reformuna yardımcı olmayı hedeflemektedir. Ayrıca özel sektörü geliştirmek, devlet gelirini
harekete geşirmek ve enerji sektöründeki reformları desteklemek diğer hedefler arasında
gösterilmiştir.
3.2.8. Yönetim Yapısal Uyum Projesi
Yönetim Yapısal Uyum Projesi 15/5/2003 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/06/2005 tarihinde
tamamlanması, ayrıca Cumhurbaşkanlığı ve Maliye Bakanlığı tarafından ortaklaşa yürütülmesi
öngörülmüştür. Proje maliyeti 20 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 20
milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir21.
Proje çerçevesinde, Şeffaflığı ve kamu sektörünün çabuk karar verme yeteneğini
geliştirmek, Kamu sektöründeki verimlilik ve etkinliği arttırmak, hazinenin modernizasyonu ve
Adalet Bakanlığındaki yasal bilgi veri tabanının gelişmesine destek vermek hedeflenmiştir. Ayrıca,
kamu alımlarındaki harcanan paranın şeffaflaşması, hükümet bakanlıklarının ve bürolarının
yapılanması, ulusal düzeydeki yoksulluğu azlatma stratejilerini geliştirmek diğer hedefler arasında
yer almaktadır.Bu projeye destek vermesi amacıyla Teknik Yardım Kredisi adı altında 7.78 milyon
USD daha kredi verilmesi öngörülmüştür.
3.2.9.Yönetişim Yapısal Ayarlama Kerdisi
Yönetişim Yapısısal Ayarlama Kredisi, 15/05/2003 tarihinde onaylanmıştır. 31/12/2006
tarihinde bitirilmesi öngörülen kredi kapsamındaki projenin maliyeti 20 milyon USD’dir.
19 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P035810 20 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P069814 21 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P071061 103
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Cumhurbaşkanlığı yönetiminde Finas bakanlığı tarafından yürütülmesi öngörülen projenin tamamı
kullanılmıştır.22
Kredi, Kırgız Cumhuriyetinde hukümet programlarını güçlendirmek ve devlet etkinliğini
desteklemektetir. Kredinin veriliş amacı, kamu sektöründe şeffaflığı ve duyarlılığı geliştirme ve
kamu sektöründeki etkinliği, verimliliği ve sorumluluğu geliştirmektir. Projenin % 80’i kamu
yönetimine, %10’u sanayi ve ticaret sektörüne, %5’i sağlık sektörüne ve %5’i eğitim sektörüne
yöneliktir.
3.2.10. Yönetişim Teknik Yardım Projesi
Yönetişim Teknik Yardım Projesi, Yönetişim Yapısısal Ayarlama Kredisi ile aynı tarihte
aynı süreyi kapsayacak şekilde onaylanmıştır ve bu kredi çerçevesindeki amaçları içermektedir.
Proje için bugüne kadar 7.78 milyon USD harcandığı tespit edilmiştir.23
3.2.11.Köy Yatırım Projesi
Köy Yatırım Projesi, 16/12/2003 tarihinde onaylanmıştır. 31/12/2008 tarihinde bitirilmesi
öngörülen projenin bedeli 19.35 milyon USD’dir ve 15.1 USD’lik kısmı kullanılmıştır. Projenin
Kalkınma ve Yatırım Ajansı Komitesi tarafında yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür.24
Projenin amacı, kırsal fakirliği yumuşatmaya katkıda bulunmak, yerel seviyede yönetimi ve
kapasiteyi geliştirmek, temel altyapı hizmetlerini kullanmayı güçlendirmek ve küçük ölçekte
girişimcileri desteklemektir. Projenin %110%ü kamu yönetimine yöneliktir.
3.2.12.Ödeme ve Bankacılık Sistemi Modernizasyon Projesi
Ödeme ve Bankacılık Sistemi Modernizasyon Projesi 16/03/2004 tarihinde uygulanmaya
başlamış, 10.49 milyon USD maliyetli bir projedir. Projenin 31/10/208 tarihinde bitirilmesi ve
Kırgız Devleti Tarfından yürürlüğe koyulması öngörülmüştür. Projenin 9 milyon USD’lik kısmının
kullanıldığı bildirilmiştir.25
Projenin amacı ticeri bankalar ve onların müşterileri tarafından kabuledilebilr,
uygulanabilir, modern ve bütünleşmiş bir ulusal ödeme sistemini geliştirmektir. Projeni bu
amaçları gerçekleştirmek üzere dört bileşeni bulunmaktadır. Bunlar, ödemeler sistemi yapısı,
Merkez Bankası genel hesapları, bankacılık sektör reformu ve proje uygulama ve yönetimidir.
Projenin %75’i finansa, %25’i bankacılığa yöneliktir.
3.2.13.Kırsal Eğitim Projesi
Kırsal Eğitim Projesi, 14/12/2004 tarihinde onaylanmış, 31/03/2010 tarihine kadar
bitirilmesi planlanmış bir projedir. Proje maliyeti 15.5 milyon USD’dir ve proje çerçevesinde 15
milyon USD kullanıldığı bildirilmiştir.26 Projenin uygulayıcısı Eğitim Bakanlığıdır.
22 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P071061 23 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P071063 24 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P073973 25 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P074881 26 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? 104
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Projenin amacı ilk öğretim okullarında öğrenme ve öğrenme şartlarını geliştirme, kırsal
alana öncelikli dikkat çekmektir. Bu projede 2006- 2008 yılları arasında Talas ve Issık Kol bölgesi
pilot bölge olarak belirlenmiştir. Kırsal bölgede öğretimi geliştirmeyi amaçlayan projenin unsurları
arasında ödemeler ve özendirmeler yoluyla öğretmenlerin performanslarını artırmak, okul kitabı
ve materyallerinin finansmanını sağlamak, temel eğitimde öğretimi ve sorumluluğu geliştirmek,
öğrenci değerlendirmesini güçlendirmek, teknik yardım ve etkin yönetimi sağlamak yer
almaktadır. Projenin %40’ı ilk okul,%40’ı lise ve %20’si kamu yönetimi, hukuk ve adaletini içine
alan merkezi devlet yönetimine yöneliktir.
3.3. Diğer Sektörlere Yönelik Projeler
3.3.1. Haberleşme Projesi
Haberleşme Projesi 23/06/1994 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/06/2001 tarihinde
tamamlanmıştır. Proje maliyeti 31 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 18
milyon USD olarak gerçekleşmiştir27. Proje, Haberleşme Bakanlığı tarafından yürütülmüştür.
3.3.2. Özelleştirme ve Teşebbüs Sektör Uyum Projesi
Özelleştirme ve Teşebbüs sektör Uyum Projesi 19/06/1994 tarihinde başlamış ve
31/12/1995 tarihinde tamamlanmış. Projenin toplam maliyeti 60 milyon USD ve proje
doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı da 60 milyon USD olmuştur28. Proje Maliye Bakanlığı
tarafından yürütülmüştür.
3.3.3. Sosyal Güvenlik Ağı Projesi
Sosyal Güvenlik Ağı Projesi 05/07/1994 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/04/2000 tarihinde
tamamlanmıştır. Proje maliyeti 18.8 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen kredi miktarı 17
milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir29.
Proje çerçevesinde, fakirliği belirlemek ve en korumasız gruplara daha etkili bir şekilde
sosyal yardımı götürmek, sosyal programlar yapmak, Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanlığı bünyesindeki
sosyal koruma bölümünün kapasitesinin güçlendirmeye yönelik teçhizat ve teknik destek
sağlanması hedeflenmiştir. Projenin fakirliğin yoğun olduğu bölgelerde olumlu neticeler verdiği
söylenebilir.
3.3.4. Sağlık Sektörü Reformu Projesi
Sağlık Sektörü Reformu projesi 14/05/1996 tarihinde başlamış ve 30/09/2001 tarihinde
tamamlanmıştır. Dünya Bankası proje doğrultusunda 18.5 milyon USD kredi vermiş ve proje
sağlık bakanlığı tarafında yürütülmüştür30.
Proje çerçevesinde, Kırgız Cumhuriyet’indeki sağlık hizmetleri reformu, halkın sağlık
seviyesinin yükseltilmesi, hizmet götürme sisteminde kliniksel faaliyetin artması ve hizmet
kalitesinin yükselmesi hedeflenmiştir.
pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P078976 27 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008518 28 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008514 29 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008515 30 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008523 105
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 3.3.5. Enerji ve Bölge Isıtma Rehabilitasyon Projesi
Enerji ve Bölge ısıtma rehabilitasyon projesi, 23/05/1996 tarihinde başlamış ve
31/12/2005 tarihinde tamamlanması öngörülmektedir. Proje maliyeti 98.5 milyon USD ve proje
doğrultusunda Dünya Bankası’nın vermiş olduğu kredi miktarı 20 milyon USD olarak tespit
edilmiştir31.
Enerji ve Bölge Isıtma Rehabilitasyon Projesinin temel hedefleri, elektirik ve iş kaynaği
altyapısını geliştirip rehabilite ederek ekonomik büyümeyi desteklemek ve hükümetin enerji ve
bölgesel ısıtma sektörünü yeniden yapılandırmasında yardımcı olmaktır. Özel hedefler ise, enerji
ve bölgesel ısıtma sisteminin verimliliğini ve güvenirliğini arttırmak, enerji ve ısı kayıplarını
azaltmak , enerji ve ısı gereçlerinin çevresel etkilerini azaltmak, mevcut enerji ve ısı donanımının
rehabilitesi gerçekleştirmek, Kırgızistan Ulusal Enerji Holding Şirketini yeniden yapılandırmak,
özel sektörün ilgisini petrol araştırma ve üretimine çekmek olarak gerçekleşmiştir.
Bişkek birleşik enerji ve ısıtıma şubesi, Kırgız elektrik sisteminde başlıca termin
şubelerden biridir. Aynı zamanda Bişkek ve çevresi için kış ayında ısıtmanın en önemli
kaynağıdır. Ayrıca Özbekistan’dan gazın kesilmesine dair gelebilecek bir tehdite karşı bu şube
ülke için bir servet değerindedir. Bu şubenin özellikle kış ayında işletilmesi Kırgızistan’ın
barajlarındaki suyun korunması imkanını vermektedir. Bu önemli servetin işlemsel verimliliği,
bakımsızlıktan ve yetersizlikden dolayı değerlendirilememiştir. Bu proje enerji açısından,
bankaların çok taraflı deseteklediği ilk yatırımdır.
İDA’nın finansmanı, modern kontrol sistemini kapsayan yeni türbinlerin tesisatına imkan
vermiştir. Ve buna ilaveten buhar kazanlarının düzenlemesine ve kömür işleme araçlarının
sağlanmasına yardım etmiştir. Bu proje “Kırgızenerji’’ yi kurumsal hale getirmede yardımcı bir
organ olmuştur. Bütün bu gelişmeler, gelecekte kurulacak olan “Kırgızenerji’’ sektörünün temelini
oluşturmakta ve aynı zamanda bunların yönlendirilmesine kapı açmaktadır.
3.3.6. Kırgız Şehir Ulaşım Projesi
Kırgız Şehir Ulaşım Projesi, 22/08/2000 tarihinde başlamış ve 31/05/2004 tarihinde
tamamlanması öngörülmüştür. Proje maliyeti 24.22 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda verilen
kredi 22 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir32.
Kırgız Şehir Ulaşım Projesi Bişkek, Oş ve Celal Abad halklarına, şehir yollarının
restorasyonu ve bakımı yoluyla guvenilir taşımacılık sağlamayı hedeflemektedir.Proje dahilinde
olan şehirlerdeki 3 inşaat 2000 yılı itibariyle tamamlanmıştır. Başkent Bişkek’teki işler, 18
kilometrelik şehir yolunun bakımını, tüp kanal onarımını drenaj, dış yüzey tamirini ve asfalt
yapımını, Calal-Abad ve Oş’taki çalışmalar ise yaklaşık 3,9 km’lik şehir yolu düzenlenmesi
içermektedir. Projenin ikinci safhasında ise kalan yolların 2003 sonuna kadar tamamlanacağı ümit
edilmektedir.
3.3.7. İkinci Sağlık Sektörü Reformu Projesi
İkinci Sağlık Sektörü Reformu Projesi 08/05/2001 tarihinde başlamış ve 31/12/2003
tarihinde tamamlanması öngörülmüştür. Proje maliyeti 19.5 milyon USD ve proje doğrultusunda
verilen kredi miktarı 15 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir33.
Önerilen projenin ana hedefi, sağlık sisteminin uzun dönem mali istikrarını ve
perfomansını yükseltmektir. Proje aynı zamanda
sağlık risklerine ve hastalıklara karşı
31 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P055733 32 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P050719 33 http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P051372 106
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 odaklanmıştır. İkinci sağlık sektör reform projesinin ana unsurları olarak, sağlık hizmetlerinin
dağıtımının yeniden düzenlenmesi, bütün ülke için sağlık alanındaki sistemi etkili ve devamlı
şekilde yeniletmek, kalite arttırımı, Kırgız nüfusunun temel sağlık problemlerinin etkin bir şekilde
ele alınarak halk sağlığı için faaliyetleri güçlendirmek ve yenilemektir. Proje, gayri resmi
ödemenin resmi ödemeyle yer değiştirmesi konusunda faydalı olmuş ve şeffaflığı arttırmıştır.
3.3.8. Su Yönetimini Geliştirme Projesi
Su Yönetimini Geliştirme Projesi 29/03/2006 tarihinde onaylanmış ve 31/12/2011
tarihinde bitmesi planlanan bir projedir. Proje maliyeti 28.1 milyon USD’dur ve proje çerçevesinde
19 milyon USD kredi kullanıldığı belirtilmiştir.34 Projenin uygulayıcısı Tarım ve Su Kaynakları
Bakanlığıdır.
Projenin iki amacı vardır: Birincisi, sulama dağıtım hizmetini geliştirme ve sulu tarımda
sürdürülebilir yükselme sağlayarak karlılığı artırma. İkincisi ise su kullanıcılarının ve halkın
kazancı için ulusal su kaynaklarını geliştirmedir. Projenin % 60’lık kısmı tarım, balıkçılık ve
ormancılık sektörüne; %40 ise kamu yönetimi, hukuk ve adaletini içine alan merkezi devlet
yönetimine yöneliktir.
3.3.9. Kuş Gribi Kontrolü, Kargaşaya Hazır Olma ve Cevaplama Projesi
Kuş Gribi Kontrolü, Kargaşaya Hazır Olma ve Cevaplama Projesi, 09/02/2006 tarihinde
onaylamış ve 30/12/2010 tarihinde bitirilmesi planlamış bir projedir. Proje bedeli 6.4 milyon
USD’dir. Hali hazırda 4 milyon USD’lik kısmı kullanılmıştır.35 Projenin uygulayıcısı Tarım ve Su
kKaynakları Bakanlığı ve Sağlık Bakanlığıdır.
Kuş Gribi Kontrolü, Kargaşaya Hazır Olma ve Cevaplama Projesi, Kırgızistan’da Kuş
Gribi hastalığının insanları tehdidi azaltma, kümes endüstrisi ve kontrol hazırlıkları yapma ve
oluşacak kargaşanın cevaplandırılmasını içermektedir. Bunun için projede engelleme, hazırlıklı
olma, planlama ve kontrol altında tutma konusuna ağırlık verilmiştir. Projenin % 50’lik kısmı kısmı
tarım, balıkçılık ve ormancılık sektörüne; % 50’lik kısmı ise sağlık ve diğer sektörlere yöneliktir.
3.3.10. Sağlık ve Sosyal Koruma Projesi
Sağlık ve Sosyal koruma Projesi 15/12/2005 tarihinde onaylanmış, 30/06/2011 tarihinde
bitirilmesi planlanmıştır. Proje maliyeti 652 milyon USD’dir. Proje kapsamında bugüne kadar 15
milyon USD kullanılmıştır. Proje uygulayıcısı Sağlık Bakanlığıdır.36
Projenin amacı, Kırgızistan’da sağlık sektöründe finasal koruma, verimlilik, adalet ve aktif
performans sağlayarak, sağlık satatüsünü geliştirmek; sağlık sektörü için güvenilebili finansman,
sigorta yeterliliğini geliştirmek; bilgi bilgi işletimini ve etkin yönetimi geliştirerek sosyal karlılık
hedeflerini güçlendirmektir. Projenin %60’lık kısmı sağlık için, %18’i kamu yönetimi, hukuk ve
adaletini içine alan merkezi devlet yönetimine, %22’lik kısmı sağlık fiansmanını içine alan kamu
yönetimine, %10’luk kısmı diğer sağlık hizmetlerine yöneliktir.
34 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P088671 35 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P099453 36 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P084977 107
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 3.3.11. Afet Riskini Azaltma Projesi
Afet Riskini Azaltma Projesi, 19/05/2005 tarihinde onaylanmış, 31/03/2010 terihinde
bitirilmesi planlamış bir projedir. Projenin bedeli 1 milyon USD’dir ve u miktarın hepsinin
kullanıldığı bildirilmiştir.37
Projenin uygulayıcısı Ekoloji bakanlığıdır. Projenin %50’si enerji ve maden sektörüne,
%30’u kamu yönetimi, hukuk ve adaletini içine alan merkezi devlet yönetimine, %20’si ise alt
kamu kurumlarına yöneliktir.
3.3.12. Küçük Şehir Altyapı ve Bina Kapasitesi Projesi
Küçük Şehir Altyapı ve Bina kapasitesi Projesi, 14/12/2004 tarihinde onaylanmıştır.
Bitmesi 31/12/2010 tarihinde öngörülen projenin maliyeti 15.5 milyon USD olarak belirlenmi ve
bugüne kadar proje kapsamında 15 milyon USD kullanılmıştır. Projenin uygulayıcısı Kalkınma ve
Yatırım Ajansı Komitesidir. 38
Bu projenin amacı küçük şehirde yaşayan halk içişn ulaşılabilirliği, kaliteyi, etkinliği,
bölgesel altyapı hizmetlerini artırmaktır. Proje unsurları arasında, şehir altyapısını geliştirmek,
sosyal altyapıyı geliştirmek, proje uygulamalarında finansman sağlamak yer almaktadır. Projenin
%52’si su, sağlıklı hale getirme ve selden korunmayı, %23’ü kamu yönetimi, %19’u ulaşım,%3’ü
eğitim ve %3’ü sağlık ve diğer sektörlere yöneliktir.
3.3.13.Afet Riskini Azaltma Projesi
Afet Riskini Azaltma Projesi 15/06/2004 tarihinde başlamış, 31/03/2010 tarihinde bitmesi
ve Çevre Bakanlığı tarafında yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür. Proje bedeli 11.76 milyon USD’dir ve
proje kapsamında 6.9 milyon USD kullanılmıştır.39
Projenin amacı uranyum, radyasyon ve maden atıklarının zararlı etkilerine maruz
kalmayı en aza indirgemek, felaket durumunda ulusal cevaplama ve acil yönetim etkinliğini
geliştirmek ve heyelan bölgesinde can ve mal kaybını azaltmaktır. Projenin %65’i ererji ve maden
sektörüne, %20’si kamu yönetimine, %15’i merkezi yönetime yöneliktir.
3.3.14. Kırsal Su Arzı ve Sağlığı Projesi
Kırsal Su Arzı ve Sağlığı Projesi, 04/12/2001 tarihinde onaylanmıştır. Projnin bitiş tarihi
31/10/2007 ve maliyeti 24.56 milyon USD olarak tespit edilmiştir. Proje kapsamında 15 milyon
USD’lik kısmın harcandığı bildirilmiştir. Projenin Tarım ve Su Kaynakları Bakanlığı tarafından
yürütülmesi öngörülmüştür.40
Bu proje çoğunlukla Talas, Narın ve IssıkKol bölgesi’nde uygulanmak üzere
hazırlanmıştır. Projenin amacı, su arz sisteminde içilebilir su kullanımını geliştirme, hijyen ve
37 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P095206 38 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P083377 39 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P083235 40 http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main? pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P036977 108
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 sağlığa uygunluğu artırmaktır. Projenin %110’lük kısmı su, sağlılıklı hale getirme ve selden
korunmaya yöneliktir.
SONUÇ VE DEĞERLENDİRME
Dünya Bankası tarafından gerçekleştirilen projeler Kırgızistan Cumhuriyeti’nin bütün
sektörlerine yönelik olarak gerçekleşmektedir. Tarım sektörüne yönelik gerçekleşen projelerin
katkılarıyla bu sektörde yer alan üreticiler, uzmanlaşmaya başlamışlar ve yine bu projeler
çerçevesinde üretim artışına katkı sağlayacak çeşitli kredilerden yararlanmaktadırlar.
Özbekistan’dan gelen gazın kesilmesi durumunda Kırgızistan için bir servet niteliği taşıyan Bişkek
birleşik enerji ve ısıtma sisteminin rehabilitasyonu projesi enerji sektörüne yönelik gerçekleştirilen
en önemli proje olmuştur.
Dünya Bankası Kırgızistan’a, örgüte üye olmasıyla başlayan yardım sürecine girmiştir.
Dünya Bankası bu yardımları genellikle projeler çerçevesinde gerçekleştirmiştir. Kırgızistan için
yapılması onaylanmış toplam 40 proje için Dünya Bankasının yapmayı hedefkediği yardım miktarı
1517.44 milyon USD olmuştur. Bu projeler için şu ana kadar 777.28 milyon USD mali yardım
gerçekleşmiştir. Yapılması hedeflenen ile gerçekleşen yardım miktarın arasındaki farkın bu kadar
büyük olmasının sebebi bazı projelerin bitiş süresinin 2011 yılına kadar olması ve maliyeti çok
yüksek olan sağlık ve sosyal koruma projesinin yeni hayata geçirilmiş olması nedeniyle kullanılan
kısmın az gerçekleşmiş olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır.
Genel olarak projelerin içinde kamu sektöründe iyileştirmeye yönelik olanların ağırlıkta
olması göze çarpmaktadır. Geçiş sürecinde Kırgızistan’da bütün Orta Asya Ülkelerinde olduğu
gibi iki yönlü geçiş yaşanmştır. Ülkede hem ekonomik hem de siyasal hayata liberalizasyona
gidilmiştir. Bu dönüşüm süreci içinde özellikle kamu sektörünün dönüşümü oldukça zor
olduğundan Dünya Bankası yetkilileri bu ülke için hazırlanan projelerde bu konuya özellikle dikkat
etmişlerdir.
Dünya bankasının projeler bazında vermiş olduğu krediler Kırgızistan Cumhuriyeti’nin
ekonomik, soyal ve siyasal alanda gelişmesinde önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Gerçekleştirilen
projeler Kırgızistan’ın güçlü bir ekonomik yapıya sahip olması yolunda önemli katkılar
sağlamaktadır. Fakat kredilerin etkinliğine, ülkedeki yolsuzluk ve rüşvet sorunu gölge
düşürmektedir. Bu bağlamda Kırgızistan’da şeffaflığın oluşmasına yönelik yapısal ve hukuksal
düzenlemelere daha fazla ağırlık verilmesi gerekmektedir.
KAYNAKÇA
1. Stephen BLANK: Orta Asya Güney Asya ve Asya Güvenliği. Avrasya Etüdleri, (
Sonbahar 1995), s.3.
2. Kırgız Cumhuriyeti: Yeni Perspektifler. ( Bişkek: KTMÜ Matbaası, 2001), s. 61-62.
3. Kırgızistan’ın 2010 Yılına Kadar Kalkınmasının Temel Kompleksi, ( Bişkek: KTMÜ
Matbaası, 2003), s.252.
4. http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/turkcumh/oik628.pdf
5. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Results.asp?st=DetSrc&Coun=KG
6. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008512
7. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008513
8. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008520
9. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P040721
10. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P062682
11. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P064585
12. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P049723
13. http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P036977
14. http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P049724
109
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41.
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P073973
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008524
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P034095
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008521
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P049719
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P035810
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P069814
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P071061
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/mainpagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSite
PK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P071061
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P071063
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P073973
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P074881
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P078976
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008518
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008514
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008515
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P008523
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P055733
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P050719
http://www4.worldbank.org/sprojects/Project.asp?pid=P051372
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P088671
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P099453
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P084977
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P095206
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P083377
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P083235
http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSit
ePK=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P036977
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 APPLIED SCIENCES 111
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 TEACHING SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMMING USING PYTHON
Niyazi ARI
Prof. Dr. sc.techn. ETH
Prorector R&D
University of Technology Zurich Switzerland
Technoparkstr.1 8005 Zurich Switzerland
nari@hsz-t.ch
Tel. +41 43 268 26 93
ABSTRACT
Python is a modern, object-oriented programming language. Its syntax is clean and
readable. Its design was informed by experiences with other teaching languages so it is
considered as suitable for such use.
This paper presents the characteristics of Python and illustrates scientific tools for Python
with some examples.
1.
WHAT IS PYTHON?
The “What is Python?” page on http://www.python.org describes Python as:
“an interpreted, interactive, object-oriented programming language. It is often compared
to Tcl, Perl,
Scheme or Java.” [their emphasis]
By interpreted it is meant each time a program is run the interpreter checks through the
code for errors and the interprets the instructions into machine-readable “bytecode”. Perl is
perhaps the best known example of an interpreted language.
Python is interactive. In one mode of operation Python is used in much the same way as
the Unix command line;
a Python statement is entered, followed by the Return key and, if appropriate, the result
is printed on the screen.
This is particularly advantageous in the debugging process, and is the natural way of
working in many mathematical programming and visualisation environments used in the physical
sciences such as Mathematica, Matlab and IDL.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Python is object-oriented by design. Object orientation provides a powerful way of
abstracting the data structures and flow of programs. It is not yet used as much in the physical
sciences , which is partly due to the naturally procedural way of thinking about algorithms, and
partly to a culturally entrenched way of programming,originating in the days before OOP.
Python is portable. The Python interpreter can be installed on any architecture for which
there exists a C compiler.
In particular it can run on the Sparc-based SunRay system in the laboratory, and on Intelbased PCs running both.
2.
PYTHON AS A TEACHING LANGUAGE
1. The use of Python as the principal teaching language of scientifics i.e. Physics.
2. Python’s design and implementation made its use preferable to other languages.
3.
IS PYTHON’S USE FEASIBLE?
3.1 Portability
It is capable of running on the Solaris-based SunRay system.
There are no problems compiling Python on Solaris.
3.2 Speed with which it can be taught
It is possible to teach enough of the language in just one day.
All the students managed to write a program to solve one of the problems. Students are
introduced to the same requisite programming concepts.
3.3 Demonstrators
It is possible for demonstrators unfamiliar with the language to quickly achieve such a
level that they can help students debug their programs.
By reading the handbooks and being directed to http://www.python.org the demonstrators
who were new to Python were quickly (usually within the first day) sufficiently competent that they
could solve student problems. Obviously a significant fraction of these problems were not Pythonspecific (algorithmic misunderstandings, etc.), but those that were (mainly syntax errors) were
always quickly solved by the demonstrators (with occasional reference to the handbook). The
important conclusion is that demonstrators were quickly able to read Python programs.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 3.4 Integrated Development Environment
It uses a simple, ideally graphical IDE.
3.5 Teaching of generic programming concepts
It is possible to teach generic programming concepts .
Python has all the control constructs of a typical procedural language. Arrays are
implemented in a fairly standard way. Lists are outside the scope of the course and no harm is
done by ignoring them. The formatted output in Python is syntactically almost exactly the same as
formatted output in C.
The most profound semantic difference between Python and its alternatives is the implicit
declaration of variables and dynamic typing. Implicit declaration means that memory is allocated
by the interpreter the first time a variable is assigned to, without the need for a list of variables at
the start of the program. Dynamic typing allows a variable to change type during the program.
Students still need to know about the concept of “type”.
Python’s interpreter overloads operators, which could be thought of as hiding too much of
the real programming from students. For example, 4 * "Hello" returns "HelloHelloHelloHello". If
the expression must return a result this is the only sensible answer. However, in this particular
case, it would be preferable for Python to raise an error as there is little need for this kind of string
manipulation in an introduction to scientific programming.
As well as being designed with the aim of being a clear language suitable for educational
use, it is commonly employed as a scripting language. In that context being extremely high level
is indisputably desirable, and it is this that has lead it to gain plaudits as a language suitable for
rapid prototyping of large and complex applications.
Variables are implicitly typed (you need not specify a type on creation). Function
definitions do not require the specification of the type or size of the actual parameters passed.
This could be another source of error, but it was not one encountered during the trial. In fact, the
lack of a requirement of the specification of array size allowed students to write more general
programs.
3.6
Is Python preferable?
Python is preferable to Pascal and C. Some general considerations of Python’s suitability
as a teaching language are:
3.6.1 Readability and the speed with which Python can be learnt
It should be possible for students to quickly write (and understand) basic programs.
This is perhaps the strongest point in Python’s favour. It’s syntax is very cleanly designed
and intuitive. At times it looks like pseudo-code, and to experienced programmers with no
knowledge of the language simple programs are usually immediately comprehensible. This
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 suggests that students would find it easy to understand, which was found to be the case during
the trial.
This is desirable as a student’s enjoyment and interest in programming is increased if
they can quickly write a functional and useful program and understand what they’ve done.
Python’s “Hello world” program is:
print "Hello world"
Programs which are functionally more complex still retain this readability and
conciseness. As well as being more rewarding for students, it could allow more content to be
squeezed into the limited time allowed for computing. If Python were used as the principal
teaching language it might allow the setting of longer, more interesting problems.
The standard library and large amount of community-support aid this; a wealth of libraries
already exist to do common tasks such as image manipulation.
Python is commonly used for projects which require rapid production of a usable
application. This is because their conciseness of expression makes their use simpler. One
quantitative measure of this is the number of lines of (non-comment) code in a program.
It is clear that the desire for students to quickly learn a language implies that language
must have:
_ clean and consistent syntax, which makes programs readable and, _ dynamic typing
and implicit declaration, which makes programs short.
3.6.2 Python’s use outside Education
A language should be usable—and ideally used in many fields.
The cursory analysis of the number of mentions of various languages found by the
Google search engine showed that, although Python is a popular language, it is not as popular as
C. However, it is perhaps more common than Fortran, which remains widely used in academia.
3.6.3 Python’s peculiarities
It should not have any unnecessarily complicated constructs whose use is required to
undertake common programming tasks.
The most clumsy thing in Python is formatted input, such as reading in a data file with
many entries on the same line. In Pascal this is done using readln(x, y) (or readln(fin, x, y) where
fin is a file pointer). X and y are then the first two white space separated numbers on the line. The
program will fail at runtime if it reads in something other than numerical values. It is not much
more complicated in C, although it does involve pointers, which is a topic a one-day introductory
course would probably avoid:
scanf("%d %d\n", &x, &y); /* from stdin */
fscanf(fin, "%d %d\n", &x, &y); /* from file */
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 In Python the same task is achieved by doing: linestring = raw_input() # Read in a line of input
# from stdin.
linelist = string.split(linestring) # Split the line on
# whitespace, returning a
# list of strings.
x = int(linelist[0]) # Assign the coerced strings
y = int(linelist[1]) # to the required variables.
If input is to be taken from file the first line is replaced with: linestring = fin.readline()
Here fin is a file object. 3.7 Experiences
The students’ reaction to Python after completing the Python Course at the University of
Applied Zurich Switzerland was favourable. Fears that Python idiosyncrasies would be confusing
generally proved unfounded.
3.7.1 Indentation a block-delimiter
No students claimed to have trouble indenting and most said they understood its
significance.
3.7.2 Error messages
The students generally thought the error messages were quite helpful.
Example:
>>> print a
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
NameError: name ’a’ is not defined
3.7.3 Syntax errors
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Syntax errors were common, as is the case with any language.
3.7.4 Reading and writing files
As usual, reading and writing files was slightly problematic. Writing was also problematic
but for a different reason. Up until they were asked to write to file students had been using the
extremely powerful print statement, which takes a lot of the hard work out of printing results to
screen. However the write method of a file object which is used to write to file cannot take several
arguments; it may only take one argument and that must be of type string. For example one may
use print "Hello", name to greet a person by printing to screen but separating multiple arguments
with commas makes the write file object method raise an error:
>>> f.write("Hello", name)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
TypeError: function takes exactly 1 argument (2 given)
This is confusing to students who had previously been separating many, arbitrarily-typed
variables with commas and using the print statement to print them to screen.
The workaround used during the course was to have students join strings using the +
operator (note the addition of a space—the + operator does not insert one):
f.write("Hello " + name)
Many students did not coerce numbers into strings before attempting to concatenate:
>>> a = 1.2
>>> f.write("a is " + a)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
TypeError: cannot concatenate ’str’ and ’float’ objects
A better solution would have been to avoid the overloading of + and use the ability of
print to write to files in much the same way as the Unix command line allows for redirection of the
standard output stream which was introduced in
print >> fout, "a is", a
All objects have “methods” which are ways of operating on the objects. For example, if b
is a list, one can append another value to it using the append method
>>> b = [1,2]
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 >>> b.append(3)
>>> print b
[1, 2, 3]
Note the lack of an assignment statement; it is not written b = b.append(3). This is
different to the equivalent procedural construct which would generally involve an assignment of a
result. This syntax is one of the few things in the handbook which is “hand-waved” away. In the
course it is only used for file methods: fin.readline(), fout.write(), etc. If one of the objects of the
course is to “hand-wave” as few things as possible away, the print >> fout, ... construct removes
the need for the fout.write method (although not fin.readline().
3.7.5 The range function and fencepost errors
Python’s multi-element objects (lists and arrays as far as the course is concerned) are all
zero-offset: the first element is indexed as [0]. This is also true of C, but not true of Pascal. The
first element of a Pascal array can be an arbitrary index, determined on the array’s declaration.
Common choices are [0] and [1].
Python’s range function which allows the emulation of for loops in other languages (i.e.
allows you to step through a code block, incrementing some counter by a constant index) is an
example of the “fencepost errors” novice programmers often encounter.
In order to generate a list that goes from 0 to n inclusive one uses range(0, n + 1) (the
first argument is optional; code0 is the default). This returns a list with n + 1 elements. In the
handbooks student’s are told: “this may seem strange but there are reasons”. In fact problems
with the range function itself were surprisingly rare.
A more common error involved arrays. An array can be created using the zeros function
which takes (at least) on argument: the number of elements in the array. For example, to create
an initialised, ten-element array of integers one might do xx = zeros(10), where xx is the array. It
was then common for students to get confused by fencepost errors and try and step through the
elements of the array using a for loop as follows:
>>> aa = zeros(10)
>>> for i in range(0, 11):
... print aa[i], # (the trailing comma suppresses the new line
... # automatically included by print)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 2, in ?
IndexError: index out of bounds
Students appeared to be confusing the fact that the last number returned by range(11) is
10 and the index of the last element of aa, which is 9. It is then that the most able students
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 spotted the reason range works like it does; the argument given to the zeros function is almost
always the same as the argument given to the range function.
Demonstrators should be aware that, if they see different arguments for zeros and range,
the student is probably confused. Of course in this case the error message is very descriptive.
3.7.6 The interactive interpreter
The interactive interpreter is a very powerful tool for debugging and interactive graphical
work.
4. SCIENTIFIC TOOLS FOR PYTHON
4.1 Example 1 with SciPy Scientific Tools
Till present three independent parcels exist to the graphic representation of technically
scientific calculations. These are scipy.plt, scipy.gplt, and scipy.xplt. Mostly universal parcel is
gplt. Here, therefore, we will use only this parcel. This is an implementing from gnuplot
(http://www.gnuplot.org) are downloaded and are installed. It must go with the order from scipy import gplt are imported. The following program shows an easy application from gplt: #
# "gp1.py"
#
from scipy import *
from scipy import gplt
x=arange(0.0, 10.0)
f=x*x
gplt.plot(x,f)
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 4.2 Example 2 with SciPy Scientific Tools
#
# "gp2.py"
#
from scipy import *
from scipy import gplt
x=arange(0, 20., .1)
y0=special.j0(x)
y1=special.j1(x)
y = hstack((y0[:,NewAxis], y1[:,NewAxis]))
gplt.plot(x,y)
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 121
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 4.3
Example 3 with SciPy Scientific Tools
#
# "gp3.py"
#
from scipy import *
from scipy import gplt
x=(arange(40.0)-20)/2.
y=(arange(40.0)-20)/2.
r=sqrt(x[:,NewAxis]**2 + y**2)
z = special.j0(r)
# Bessel Functions
gplt.surf(x,y,z)
gplt.hidden("remove")
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 5. CONCLUSION
The use of Python as the principal teaching language:
_ It is Free (as in both cost and source code).
_ It is trivial to install on a Windows PC allowing students to take their interest further. For
many the hurdle of installing a Pascal or C compiler on a Windows machine is either too
expensive or too complicated;
_ It is a flexible tool that allows both the teaching of traditional procedural programming
and modern OOP; It can be used to teach a large number of transferable skills;
_ It is a real-world programming language that can be and is used in academia and the
commercial world;
_ It appears to be quicker to learn and, in combination with its many libraries, this offers
the possibility of more rapid student development allowing the course to be made more
challenging and varied;
_ and most importantly, its clean syntax offers increased understanding and enjoyment
for students;
Python should be used as the first year teaching language. If used, it will be possible to
teach students more programming and less of the peculiarities of a particular language. Teaching
a mid-level language like C in just one day is inadvisable. Too much time must be spent teaching
C and not enough time teaching generic skills to students with no programming experience. The
use of Python as the first year language is not a dead-end. I have tried to emphasise that Python
allows the teaching of widely applicable programming concepts. Its use in no way precludes the
use of C in a more advanced course. In fact students who go on to use C in later years will have
a better grounding in concepts from their introduction to programming than they might have from
a C-based introduction. I believe that more students will go on to advanced programming if
introduced using Python because introducing programming using C will frustrate and scare off a
large number of students.
In conclusion, Python offers the optimum compromise of teachability and applicability.
REFERENCES
[1] ARI, N. Python for Engineers, University of Applied Sciences, 2002
[2] Ululu Shahriar, WEB Based Learning of Programming Language Python, PhD Thesis
2008
[3] Hans Petter Langtangen, Python Scripting for Computational Science Springer, 2000,
ISBN 3-540-43508-5
[4] M. Lutz and A. Ascher, Learning Python, O’Eilly, 1999
[5] G. van Rossum and F.L. Drake, Python Tutorial, http://docs.python.org/tut/tut.html
[6] A. Martelli, Python in a Nutdhell, O’Reilly, 2003
[7] M. Weigend, Python Ge-Packt, mitp, 2005
[8] M. Weigend, Objektorientierte Programmierung mit Python, mitp, ISBN 3-8266-1571-9
[9] M. Lauer, Python und GUI-Toolkits, mitp, 2002, ISBN 3-8266-0844-5
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 FPGA VE HDL ALANINDAKİ GELİŞMELERİN DİGİTAL ELEKTRONİK EĞİTİMİNDE VE
LABARATUVAR ŞARTLARINDA GÖRÜLEN ETKİLERİ
Vedat KIRAY
Vkiray@hsz-t.ch
University of Technology,Zürich ve Uluslararası Atatürk Alatoo Üniversitesi
Keywords: FPGA, HDL, Dijital Electronik Eğitimi
ABSTRACT
In this study, FPGA based Digital Electronic education prepared for International Ataturk
Alatoo University was introduced. Effects of FPGA and HDL developments on Digital Electronic
Education were discussed and some reasons on program changing in the Digital Eletronic
Program were explained. This study is the some part of an education project which aided
University of technology Zurich and International Ataturk Alatoo University
ÖZET
Bu çalışmada Zürich Technology üniversitesi ve
Uluslararası Atatürk Alatoo
Üniversitesinin ortak yürüttügü Digital Electronik ve DSP/FPGA Eğitimi isimli proje kapsamında
hazırlanan Digital Electronic ders programı ve programın hazırlanmasında dikkate alınan,
özellikle FPGA ve DHL alanindaki gelismelerle ilgili, faktörler sunulmuştur.
1. GİRİŞ
FPGA ların son kullanıcı tarafından şekillendirilebilen elektronik malzemeler olması,
bircok üniversitede Dijital elektronik eğitiminin bu malzemeler uzerinden yapılması fikrini
gündeme getirmiştir. Son zamanlarda FPGA larda gözlenen yüksek kapasite ve hız artışı da bu
düsünceleri desteklemiştir. Daha FPGA ların cok yeni oldugu 1993 yılında Braunschweig Teknik
Üniversitesinden Andreas Koch ve Ulrich Golze, Eğitim ve Araştırmalarda FPGA uygulamaları
isimli yayınlarıyla kendi üniversitelerinde FPGA uygulamalarının eğitim ve araştırmalar uzerindeki
olumlu etkilerinden bahsetmiştir[1].
Quinnipiac üniversitesinden Mark Hoffman, ve Vasington Üniversitesinden Mark Holland,
James Harris, Scott Hauck ve Aizu Üniversitesinden Yamin Li and Wanming Chu kendi
üniversiterinde Bilgisayar organizasyonu ve mimarisi dersi icin hazirlamis olduklari FPGA tabanli
eğitim programlarini yaptiklari yayinlarla tanitmislardir[2][3].
Yine Vigo üniversitesinden 5 kisilik bir çalışma grubu FPGA uygulamaları tabanlı dijital
Elektronik Ogrenim sistemini ve Caledonian Üniversitesinden Venkateswara Sarma Mallela ve A.
Vallavaraj, kendi üniversitelerindeki FPGA tabanlı dijital Elektronik eğitimini tanıtmıslardır[4][5].
Üstteki çalışmalarda, her ne kadar kullanılan FPGA cesidleri, labaratuvar uygulamaları,
kullanılan metodlar ve ders programları üniversitelere göre degisiklik gostersede, ortak nokta
olarak FPGA ların elektronik ve bilgisayar eğitimine aktif katkılarına deginilmiştir.
Bu çalışmada ise, FPGA ve HDL alanlarındaki gelismelerin Dijital Elektronik Eğitiminde
degisime gidilmesini zorunlu kılan faktorler ve bu faktorlerin Uluslararası Ataturk Alatoo
Üniversitesi şartlarına göre degerlendirilisi ele alınmıştır.
Yayının ikinci bölümüde mevcut Dijital Elektronik Eğitimi hakkında genel bir
degerlendirme yapıdı ve HDL ve FPGA da meydana gelen gelismelerin Digital elektronik
eğitiminde meydana getirdigi degisikliklere deginildi. 3. bolumde FPGA tabanlı Dijital Elektronik
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Eğitimi ele alındı ve ders programının şekillenmesinde onemli olan detaylar hakkında bilgi verildi.
Uygulama bordu ve labaratuvar çalışmalarına deginildi ve Sonuc bolumunde FPGA tabanlı
Elektronik Eğitiminin önemi vurgulandı, uygulanabilirligi uzerinde duruldu ve hedeflenen
çalışmalar hakkında bilgi verildi.
2. DIGITAL ELEKTRONIK EĞITIMINDE DEGISIMI ZORUNLU KILAN FAKTORLER
Klasik bir Digital Electronik Labaratuvar Eğitiminde Genel olarak Logic gate devreleri,
Filip-flop, shift-register, converter, multiplexerler demultiplexerler vb temel konular olarak ele
alınmakta ve yaklasık 60 kadar 74XXX ve 40XXX serisi IC kullanılmaktadır. Bundan yaklasık 15
yıl once bircok elektronik devre üstteki IC ler kullanılarak mantık devreleri seviyesinde dizayn
edilebilmekteyken gelisen elektronik teknolajisi ile lojik kapılar ve Filip-Flop(FF) lar bazında
yapılan şematik dizaynlar yetersiz kalmaya başlamıs ve verilog, VHDL gibi donanım tanımlama
dilleri(HDL) onem kazanmıştır. Bu gelismelere baglı olarak FPGA ların bahsedilen programlama
dilleri kullanılarak istenilen donanımı saglayabiliyor olması dijital elektronige ayrı bir boyut
katmıştır. Gunumuzde bircok elektronik dizayn tamamen HDL kullanılarak dizayn edilmekte ve
şematik karşılıgı FPGA ların derleyicisine bırakılmaktadır.
2.1 HDL alanındaki gelismelerin Etkisi
Bes altı yıl öncesinde, şematik dizayn mı yoksa HDL dizayn mı daha pratik? konulu
tartışmalar yapılabilmekte idi. Fakat son zamanlarda komplex dizaynlar icin HDL kullanım
üstunlugu herkez tarafından kabul edilmeye başlanmıştır[6]. Her nekadar HDL tasarımda
elektronik devre karşılıgının bulunamaması gibi problemlerle karşılasılabilinmekte veya derleyici
anlayışına baglı olarak, gerçekte basit bir devre ile aynı islevi gören gereksiz büyüklükte devreler
ortaya cıkabilmekte ise de, bunlar HDL kullanımı icin istisna kabul edilmektedir. Komplex Dijital
elektronik devre tasarımda vazgeçilmez bir yer edinen HDL kullanımının Dijital elektronik
Eğitiminde de zorunlu olarak bir yer ayrılması gerekmektedir.
HDL kullanımının bir seviyeye kadar şematik dizayn ile desteklenmesi gerekmektedir.
Cunku eğitimde gorsellik cok önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Genel olarak HDL eğitimi, ileri Dijital
Elektronik ders programına daha uygun düsmektedir.
2.2 FPGA alanındaki gelismelerin Etkisi
FPGA lar kapasitesine göre onlarca yüzlerce binlerce veya yüzbinlerce mantık kapıları ve
hafıza ünitelerinden olusur (Şekil 1). Kurulmak istenen devre bu uniteler arasındaki switch
baglantılarının kurulmalarıyla gerçeklestirilir (Şekil 2). FPGA a yerlestirilecek bir elektronik devre,
şematik dizayn veya donanım tanımlama dillerinden(HDL) birisi kullanılarak hazırlanır.
Configurable
Logic
Blocks
Block RAMs
Block RAMs
I/O
Blocks
Block
RAMs
Şekil 1: FPGA nedir?
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 FPGA ların en buyük avantajlarından birisi: aynı anda yuzlerce binlerce unitenin aynı
anda parallel olarak çalıstırılabilmesidir. Bu özellik buyük matrisler, grafik hesaplamaları, sayısal
sinyal isleme vb gibi yüksek kapasiteli işlemler açısından buyük onem arzetmektedir.
Routing Resources
CLB
CLB
PSM
CLB
PSM
CLB
PSM
CLB
CLB
CLB
Programmable
Switch
Matrix
PSM
CLB
CLB
Şekil 2: Programlanabilir baglantı noktaları
Onceleri islemciler ve yan donanımlardan olusan buyük hacimli elektronik kartlar artık tek
bir FPGA ın icinde toplanabilmekte ve hacim ve maliyet yonuyle buyük avantajlar elde
edilmektedir. Mesala birbirinden bagımsız çalısan birçok mikroislemci aynı FPGA icine
koyulabilmekte ve bagımsız bircok islem paralel olarak yaptirilabilmektedir.
FPGA lar Digital elektronik eğitimine farklı bir boyut kazandırmıştır. En basit logic gate
lerden mikroislemcilere kadar ve DSP lerden bir PC islemcisine kadar bütün uygulamalar aynı
FPGA üzerinde gerçeklestirilebilmektedir. Örneğin bir bilgisayar oğrencisi kendi islemcisini FPGA
tabanlı olusturarak kendi bilgisayarını kendisi yapabilmekte ve mesleğini anlama konusunda ciddi
bir bütünlük anlayışı elde edebilmektedir
FPGA üreticileri MATLAB programı icin gerekli FPGA similatorlerini de sunmuştur. Bu
sayede özellikle FPGA tabanlı DSP uygulamaları, yüksek seviyeli Dijital Elektronik Eğitimine
büyük katkı saglamıştır.
3. FPGA TABANLI DIGITAL ELEKTRONIK EĞITIMI
Dijital Elektronik eğitiminde belli bir asamaya kadar gorsellige ihtiyac vardır. Şematik
dizaynda belli bir seviyeye ulasan öğrenci, daha sonra sadece HDL kullanarak bircok başarılı
elektronik devre dizaynı yapabilir, fakat yeterli şematik dizayn tecrübesi olmayan ögrencinin
beklenmedik problemlerle zaman kaybetmesi soz konusu olabilir.
FPGA ureticilerinin hepsi, kendi dizay programlarını ucretsiz olarak sunmaktadır. Şematik
dizayn editorunu veya HDL editorlerini kullanarak devre tasarlamak ve similasyonunu
gerçeklestirmek mumkundur. Bu dijital elektronik eğitimi açısından da ciddi bir avantaj
saglamaktadır. Klasik Dijital elektronik eğitiminde kullanılan bütün devre elemanları fonksiyon
olarak bu programların kutuphanelerinde yer almaktadır (Şekil 4).
HDL ve FPGA kullanımı hakkında asagıda bazı sonuclar cıkartılmıs ve sonuclara baglı
olarak Dijital elektronik eğitiminde yapılması gereken degisiklikler tespit edilmiştir.
3.1 Tespitler(T) ve Eğitime Yansıtılan Degisiklikler(D)
T1.) FPGA tabanlı bir Dijital Elektronik programı icin, FPGA ve HDL eğitiminin de ders
programına eklenmesi gerekmektedir.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 D1.) FPGA konusunun iyi anlaşılabilmesi bir miktar Dijital elektronik ve temelde PLD
bilgisi gerektirmektedir. HDL eğitimi icin de öğrencinin bir programlama dilini biliyor olması avantaj
saglıyacaktır. Her nekadar profesyonel uygulamalarda VHDL tercih edilse de, C diline yakınlıgı
sebebi ile, üniversite eğitimi asamasında Verilog dili ile baslanması daha mantıklı gözükmektedir.
Eger istenirse Verilog kullanımından VHDL kullanımına geçisi kolaylastıran özel çalışmalardan
yararlanmak ta mümkündür.
T2.) Klasik Dijital elektronik, FPGA ve HDL konularının ögretim sırası yönüyle bir
düzenleme yapılması kaçınılmaz gözükmektedir.
D2.) Bu noktada ders programında bir karısıklık oluşmaktadır. Cünkü bu zamana kadar
PLD ler Dijital elektronik derslerinin son konuları olarak ele alınmakta idi. Fakat FPGA tabanlı bir
eğitim icin ögrencinin FPGA ları daha once tanıması gerekmektedir. Bununla birlikte FPGA
konusunun, dersin baslangıcında ele alınması gereksiz, hatta ders verimini dusurebilecek bir
uygulama olabilir. HDL eğitimini ise ileri dijital elektronik dersi adı altında vermek daha uygun
gözükmektedir. Tablo 1’de üstte bahsedilen sıralama gösterilmistir.
Tablo 1: Dijital Elektronik ders programi
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
Temel Mantık Devrelerinin, sayı sistemlerinin, Boolean Matematigi ve sadelestirme
tekniklerinin, Multiplexer, Converter, FF, Counter ve Shift register konularının
ogretilmesi
FPGA yapısının ve çalışma prensiplerinin anlatılması
FPGA şematik dizayn kullanılarak a sıkkında anlatılan konuların FPGA tabanlı olarak
tekrar edilmesi ve bu arada pekistirilmesi
Orta seviyede complex devrelerin şematik dizayn kullanılarak Dizayn edilmesi ve
FPGA bord uygulamalarının gerçeklestirilmesi
IP modul kullanımı hakkında bilgi verilmesi ornek IP modullerin olusturulması
Verilog temellerinin anlatılması
Secilmis devrelerin Verilog kodları ve şematik dizayn kullanılarak olusturulması ve
karşılastırılması
Verilog kodları kullanılarak IP modullerin olusturulması
Verilog kodları kullanılarak komplex Dijital Elektronik devreleri kurmak
VHDL dilinin anlatılması, Verilog ile gerekli karşılastırmaların yapılması
T3.) FPGA kullanımı labaratuvarlardaki uygulama bordu kullanımını azaltmaktadır.
Ornegin 4-5 tane IC nin bir bord uzerinde iletken yollar ve lehim islemleriyle birlestirilmesinden
olusan bir elektronik devre, tamamen FPGA ın icinde olusturulabilmektedir.
D3.) Elektronik bölümü öğrencileri Temel Elektronik Labaratuvarı derslerinde gerekli
devre kurma tecrübesini edinmektedir. Dijital elektronik derslerinde ilk 2 hafta, mantık devrelerinin
tanıtımı esnasında ve sayıcı gibi uygulamalarda osiloskop cıktısını incelemek icin uygulama
bordu kullanımı yeterlidir. Bu konuda kazanılan zaman tasarrufu diger haftalara aktarılacaktır.
T4.) FPGA kütüphaneleri, Klasik Dijital Elektronik Derslerinde kullanılan butun devre
elemanlarını, aynı islevi gören modüller seklinde icermektedir. (Şekil 4)
D4.) Dijital Elektronik Labaratuvarlarında, temel entegre devre elemanlarını sadece birer
ornek bazında bulundurmak yeterli olacaktır. FPGA tabanlı dizayn icin, aslında bir süre sonra
ögrencinin bu elektronik devre elemanlarını gorme ihtiyacı da minumuma inecektir, fakat
endüstride mevcut elektronik devre elemanlarıyla karşılaşma ihtimaline binaen bu uygulamanın
devam ettirilmesi gerekmektedir.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 T5.) FPGA tabanlı Dijital elektronik Eğitimi icin uygun bir bordun tespit edilmesi
gerekmektedir.
D5.) Bord olarak Zürih Teknoloji Üniversitesi labaratuvarlarında kullanılan bord tercih
edilmiştir (Şekil 4). Bu bordun özelligi, öğrencinin Dijital Elektronik dersinden sonra görecegi
mikroislemciler, Sayısal isaret isleme ve Robotik derslerinde de bu bordu kullanabilecek
olmasıdır.
ALTERA FPGA
Şekil 3: Labaratuvar icin uygun görülen bord
T6.) Labaratuvar Ortamının Degismesi Gerekmektedir.
T7.) FPGA tabanlı bir eğitimde bilgisayar kullanımı önemli bir yer teşkil etmektedir. Ideal
şartlarda her öğrenci icin bir bilgisayar,yanında FPGA bordu, minimum elektronik devre
elemanları ve ölcü aletlerinin bulunması eğitim verimini arttıracaktır. Bu şartlar saglanamadıgı
taktirde, dizayn derslerinin bilgisayar labaratuvarlarında ve bord uygulamalarının Elektronik
labaratuvarlarında gerçeklestirilmesi yeterli olmaktadır.
4. SONUC
Sonuc olarak Dijital Elektronik Eğitiminde üc aşama ortaya cıkmaktadır.
Birinci asama: Bu seviyede öğrenci gerçek devre elemanlarını görüyor, kablo veya
lehim baglantıları ile devreyi kurabiliyor. Olcü aletleri ile devreyi test edebiliyor. Fakat ancak basit
seviyede dizaynlar yapabiliyor.
Ikinci asamada: Öğrenci gerçek devre elemanları yerine bu elemanların sembolleri ile
çalısıyor ve baglantıları bilgisayar ortamında gerçeklestiriyor. Devre testlerini once bilgisayar
ortamında daha sonra FPGA bord üzerinde yapıyor. Orta seviyede complex devreler
kurulabiliyor. HDL kullanımına geçişi kolaylastırmak icin temel seviyede şematik ve HDL dizayn
karşılastırmaları yapıyor.
Üçüncü aşamada: Öğrenci elektronik devre sembollerini görmüyor tamamen HDL
kodlarıyla çalısıyor, devreyi kısmen tahmin edebiliyor ve similasyon sonuclarına göre hareket
ediyor. Komplex devreler kurabiliyor ve FPGA bord üzerinde elektronik gerçekleme yapabiliyor.
Bu seviyelerin dikkate alınması Dijital Elektronik eğitiminin performansını arttırmaktadır.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Bu asamaların herhangi birisinin atlanması Dijital Elektronik eğitiminde problemlere yol
acmaktadır. Ornegin ögrenciler tarafından dile getirilen en önemli sikayetlerden bir tanesi,
mikroislemcilerin, hafıza unitelerinin ve diger yan donanımlar gibi kompleks devre elemanlarinin ic
yapıların ve birbirleriyle olan haberlesmelerin tam anlaşılamiyor veya hayal edilemiyor olmasıdır.
Bu problem 2. asamanın eksikliginden kaynaklanmaktadir. Sonucta ögrencinin bilgi birikiminde
bazı kopukluklar oluşmaktadır. Dolayısıyla FPGA kullanımı Dijital Elektronik Eğitiminde ciddi bir
butunluk olusturmaktadır.
Uluslararası Ataturk Alatoo Üniversitesinde Dijital Elektronige Lojik Dizayn Dersi ile
başlanmaktadır. Bu asamada FPGA konusuna deginilmemekle birlikte, aslında FPGA ların iyi
ögrenilmesini saglayacak alt yapı hazırlanmaktadır. Bu ders icin bir program degisikligine
gidilmemiştir. Dijital elektronik ve Gelismis Dijital eletronik derslerinde FPGA ve HDL
kullanımlarının iyice ögretilmesi hedeflenmektedir. Boylece FPGA tabanlı eğitim, sadece lojik
dizayn, dijital elektronik ve microcontrollers dersleri icin degil aynı zamanda robotic, yapay zeka,
sayısal signal isleme derslerine de uygulama imkani sunmaktadır. Ögrencinin Dijital Elektronik
Dersinde FPGA kullanımında tecrübe kazanmıs olması adı geçen derslerde zaman kaybetmeden
uygulama yapılabilme avantajını getirmekte ve dersin verimini yükseltmektedir.
Günümüzde bircok elektronik devre bir FPGA ın icine yerlestirilerek kullanılmak uzere IP
modüller seklinde üretilmektedir. Kullanıcılar gerekli olan devreleri fonksiyon olarak satın almakta
ve bir FPGA icinde kullanmaktadır. Bu uygulamaların artması da FPGA tabanlı bir eğitimi gerekli
kılmaktadır.
Etkili bir eğitim icin her öğrenciye ait bir uygulama bordunun olması, programın verimliligi
açısından zorunlu gözukmektedir. Son zamanlarda FPGA bordlarının ücretleri ögrenciler icin
200$ lara kadar dusmuştür. DSP uygulamalarına müsayit olan bordlar ise 700$-1000$ civarında
temin edilebilmektedir.
FPGA tabanlı eğitimde öğrencinin piyasada kullanılan malzemeleri tanıma yonuyle bir
eksigi olusabilir, fakat bu dejavantajın kısa bir kurs ile giderilmesi mümkündür.
Bu calısmanın devamında, FPGA tabanlı mikroislemciler, Sayısal sinyal isleme ve robotik
dersleri ele alinarak ayrı ayrı ders programları hazırlanabilir.
REFERENCES
[1] Andreas Koch, Ulrich Golze “FPGA Applications
Proc. 4th EUROCHIP Workshop, p. 260-265, Toledo 1993.
in
Education
and
Research”
[2] Y. Li and W. Chu, "Using FPGA for Computer Architecture/Organization Education", IEEE
Computer Society Technical Committee on Computer Architecture Newsletter, June 1996, IEEE
Computer Society Press. pp.31-35
[3] Mark Hoffman “An Fpga-Based Digital Logic Lab For Computer Organization And
Architecture” Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, Volume 19 , Issue 5 (May 2004)
Pages: 214 - 227
[4] Mark Holland, James Harris, Scott Hauck “Harnessing FPGAs for Computer Architecture
Education” Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE International Conference on Microelectronic Systems
Education (MSE’03) 0-7695-1973-3/03 $17.00 © 2003 IEEE
[5] Camilo Quintans, M. Dolores Valdes, Mª Jose Moure, Luis Fernandez-Ferreira, Enrique
Mandado “Digital Electronics Learning System Based on FPGA Applications” 35th ASEE/IEEE
Frontiers in Education Conference, October 19 – 22, 2005, Indianapolis, 0-7803-90776/05/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
129
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 [6] Jerry Kaczynski, ALDEC, Inc. “The Challenges of Modern FPGA Design Verification” FPGA
and Structural ASIC journal, July 27, 2004
[7] www.altera.com
[8] www.xelinx.com
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Şekil 5 : Altera FPGA dizayn ve similasyon Editoru
131
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 WEB-BASED METHODOLOGY IN LEARNING
Myrzagul Zakirova (PhD Candidate)
Computer Engineering Department,
Institute of Applied Sciences,
International Ataturk Alatoo University, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
qeleshova@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
The development of technology also effects education and web-based learning is a result
of this relation. The purpose of this article is to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
Web-based technology for education. Research findings indicate that the use of web has a
positive effect on the educational achievement, but it still has its limitations and weaknesses,
such as integration of the user interface design and support environment. It has to be known that
both the advantages and disadvantages of using computers must be recognized so that the
maximum effectiveness of technology to enhance teaching and learning would be got.
1. WHAT IS WEB-BASED LEARNING AND THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE OF THE
WEB-BASED LEARNING PROJECT?
During the past two decades, developments in telecommunication technologies resulted
also development in education; especially the technologies combined with web have created a
new technology-based focus as web-based learning and teaching methodology. These
developments have changed the concept of education around the globe, creating new challenges
and opportunities offered by this new methodology. For web-based learning, often call online
learning, e-learning or distance learning, because it includes presentations, lecture notes, selfassessment tests, videoconferencing, live lectures (video streaming), e-mail discussion groups,
online books, archives and static pages such as printed course materials.
Nowadays web-based learning is widely used in especially higher education, for example
in medical education. Web based learning can be used to provide learning materials and to
enable self assessment, for example access to anatomical sites and image banks for the
teaching of pathology courses. Web based learning can be useful for research and practical
activities. Also learners who are geographically dispersed can use live lectures (video streaming).
Here in the Figure1 is shown one example for web based learning .This is web-based
learning site of university of Oklahoma Health Science Center. As you can see web-page is
divided into main 3 parts; online educational programs, online pathology quizzes and selected
teaching conferences.
In online educational programs part, learner can find a case-oriented pathology teaching
program which utilizes classic case material, a neuropathology learning program with case study
material, quiz, and didactic text, and a case-oriented learning program in oral pathology.
In online pathology quizzes, learner can find links to online multiple choice type quiz
questions in anatomic pathology, quiz program in general anatomic pathology, mainly surgical
pathology, quiz program in cytology and cytopathology, learning program in hematology and
hematopathology, and quiz program in neuropathology, a component of NeuroLearn.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 And finally, in selected teaching conferences a learner can find a monthly neuropathology
didactic lecture designed for pathology, neurosurgery, and neurology residents and
neuropathology interactive session.
Figure1
Source: University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Department of Pathology, Web-Based
Learning Center, http://w3.ouhsc.edu/pathology/Learning_Ctr/LearnCenter_home.asp
By clicking on the titles learner can reach to links.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Figure 2.
Source: University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Department of Pathology, WebBased Learning Center, http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/JTY1/cytolearn/CytoQuiz/CQ-001-M.htm
Above figure shows the web page of CytoLearn. CytoLearn consists of two main parts.
Left part is the index of quizzes and when you click on the quiz numbers, they appear on
the right side of the page. In Figure 2 there is the example of Fine Needle Aspiration Quiz.
2. ADVANTAGES OF WEB-BASED LEARNING
By many academic institutions, organizations and companies all around the world web
based courses and programs were developed, because it is beneficial for both learners and
educators.
There are many advantages of web based learning. First of all it encourages independent
and active learning. Also you can link resources in many different formats. And it is efficient way
of delivering course materials. By using web based learning resources can be made available
from any location and at any time, so that students can submit assessments from remote sites.
No matter whether the user is part time worker, mature or work based student, it is open to all
kind of users. It provides a useful source of supplementary materials to conventional programs.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Secondly, the web based courses is that it combines functions such as discussion
boards, chat rooms, online assessment, and provide distribution of information to learners and
enables learners to work together on projects and share information.
And thirdly, these learning software packages are often integrated with conventional, face
to face teaching. This is normally done using an intranet, which is usually "password protected"
and accessible only to registered users. Thus it is possible to protect the intellectual property of
online material and to support confidential exchange of communication between users.
3. DISADVANTAGES OF WEB-BASED LEARNING
Also there are some negative aspects related to web-based learning. These are
mentioned by different academics (Nam C. S. & Smith-Jackson T. L., 2007, Mc Kimm, J., Jollie,
C. & Cantillon,P., 2003 ). Disadvantages can be summarized as following.
1. When planning online examination it is important to determine what is to be assessed.
If knowledge reproduction is being tested, objective questions (such as multiple choice or "true or
false" questions) with instant or model answers can provide excellent feedback. Measurement of
higher cognitive functions, such as analysis and synthesis, will need more complex tests.
Automated marking may be difficult for such assessments, and the teacher is likely to have to do
additional amount of work before he can add his or her comments to the student's record.
2. Another disadvantages can be poor equipment, slow download, so that learners
cannot access graphics, images, and video clips. On the other hand, access to appropriate
computer equipment can be a problem for students.
3. Teachers must design lessons with the basic tools, that student can surf easily and
reach to lectures without feeling hardness. Because some older students unlike younger ones
may feel less comfortable with web-based lessons due to less familiarity with using the internet.
4. A student needs basic computer skills in order to use web-based courses.
4. APPLYING WEB-BASED LEARNING FOR PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
For beginners to the programming language it is better to start with QBASIC. Because
QBasic is easy to learn, uses English-like words and has simple user-interface that younger
students who may feel less comfortable can without hardness work.
Here was created a web-based course for programming language by which student can
learn it systematically. Each lesson as specific chapter contents explanations, examples and
exercises so that a completed subject is illustrated. And teachers designed these courses to
encourage effective web-based learning rather than meaningless surfing. And these courses are
filtered out from poor and unnecessary information. Referenced book is divided into two parts:
basic and advanced topics. Chosen examples have been selected from high school courses.
Web page is divided into 3 parts: top –right part is reserved for title, left column is for links. When
you click on the link in the middle the content of chosen subject will appear.
The concept of the web page is planned in the practical way. It has three parts:
1. Title Part: The description of the web-based course is placed.
2. The left part is the index of the course.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 3. The content of linked part appears on the right bottom part.
All of these three parts of the web page is illustrated in the following figure:
Figure 3.
Source: Zakirova, M. ” Web- Based Programming Language Learning, Example:
QBASIC”
5. CONCLUSION
It is seen that web-based learning is very useful technology in education due to its
benefits for both learners and educators. However, course designers must give importance to the
main two considerations like: integration of the user interface design and support environment. If
these two weaknesses will be developed, overall educational quality will be improved and will be
further step to better education.
6. REFERENCES
1. Nam C. S. & Smith-Jackson T. L. (2007) “Web-Based Learning Environment: A TheoryBased Design Process for Development and Evaluation”, Journal of Information Technology
Education, Volume 6, pp: 23-43
2. University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Department of Pathology, Web-Based
Learning Center, http://w3.ouhsc.edu/pathology/Learning_Ctr/LearnCenter_home.asp
3. University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Department of Pathology, Web-Based
Learning Center, http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/JTY1/cytolearn/CytoQuiz/CQ-001-M.htm
4. McKimm J, Jollie C, Cantillon P. (2003) “ABC of Learning and Teaching: Web-Based
Learning”. BMJ 326: 870–3
5. Zakirova, M. ” Web- Based Programming Language Learning, Example: QBASIC”
136
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 OBJECT ORIENTED CONCEPT IN PRACTICE
Usonbek Jusupov
usonbek@iaau.edu.kg
International Ataturk Alatoo University
Abstract
It is not surprising, therefore, that there is some confusion regarding object-oriented
terms and concepts. In this article, we will provide the reader with working definitions for objectoriented terms and concepts that are necessary for a reader to acquire a basic understanding of
object-oriented technology.
Usage
For the software engineer, object-oriented technology encompasses object-oriented
programming languages, object-oriented development methodologies, management of objectoriented projects, object-oriented computer hardware, and object-oriented computer aided
software engineering, among others
What are OOP’s claims to fortune?
Better suited for project development by a team of programmers
Facilitates utilizing and creating reusable software components
Easier program maintenance
Easier GUI programming
Abstraction (the way humans manage complexity)
i.e. people don’t think of a car as a set of tens of thousands individual parts. They think of
it as a well-defined object with its own unique behavior. They are free to utilize the object as a
whole
A complex system can be broken into more manageable pieces, which are hidden by
hierarchical abstraction
OOP Principles → Benefits
Easier team development
Software reusability
Easier program maintenance
Relatively easy graphics and GUI programming
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Main Concepts
•
•
•
•
Object
Class
Inheritance
Encapsulation
Objects
•
•
•
•
•
•
identity – unique identification of an object
attributes – data/state
services – methods/operations
supported by the object
within objects responsibility to provide these services to other clients
Objects in practice
Objects are the physical and conceptual things we find in the universe around us.
Hardware, software, documents, human beings, and even concepts are all examples of objects.
Examples
An automotive engineer would see tires, doors, engines, top speed, and the current fuel
level as objects.
A software engineer would consider folder,files, windows, and check boxes as objects.
Class
•
•
•
•
•
•
“type”
object is an instance of class
class groups similar objects
same (structure of) attributes
same services
object holds values of its class’s attributes
Class in Practice
A class is a pattern, template, or blueprint for a category of structurally identical items.
The items made using the class are called instances.
This is often referred to as the "class as a `cookie cutter'" view. As you might guess, the
instances are the "cookies."
class also can be called an `instance factory.'
Abstract Classes
Abstract classes are classes that embody coherent and cohesive, but incomplete,
concepts, and in turn, make these characteristics available to their specializations via inheritance.
For example, consider the concept of an automobile. On one hand, most people know
what an automobile is. On the other hand, "automobile" is not a complete definition for any
vehicle.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Inheritance
•
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Class hierarchy
Generalization and Specialization
subclass inherits attributes and services from its superclass
subclass may add new attributes and services
subclass may reuse the code in the superclass
subclasses provide specialized behaviors (overriding and dynamic binding)
Encapsulation
Separation between internal state of the object and its external aspects
How ?
control access to members of the class
interface “type”
Access Control - cont
public member (function/data)
Can be called/modified from outside.
protected
Can be called/modified from derived classes
private
Can be called/modified only from the current class
default ( if no access modifier stated )
Usually referred to as “Friendly”.
Can be called/modified/instantiated from the same package.
Access Control - cont.
KEY
•
•
•
Open Door (public)
Closed and with key (protected)
Closed only one key (private)
Inheritance
Polymorphism
Inheritance makes an “is a” relation:
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 For example, if B inherits from A, than we say that “B is also an A”.
Inheritance is can be described as new code using old code.
Polymorphism can be described as old code using new code.
//: polymorphism/shape/Shape.java
package polymorphism.shape;
public class Shape {
public void draw() {}
public void erase() {}
} ///:~
Square
package polymorphism.shape;
import static net.mindview.util.Print.*;
public class Square extends Shape {
public void draw() { print("Square.draw()"); }
public void erase() { print("Square.erase()"); }
} ///:~
Circle
package polymorphism.shape;
import static net.mindview.util.Print.*;
public class Circle extends Shape {
public void draw() { print("Circle.draw()"); }
public void erase() { print("Circle.erase()"); }
} ///:~
Triangle
package polymorphism.shape;
import static net.mindview.util.Print.*;
public class Triangle extends Shape {
public void draw() { print("Triangle.draw()"); }
public void erase() { print("Triangle.erase()"); }
} ///:~
Shape Generator
public class RandomShapeGenerator {
private Random rand = new Random(47);
public Shape next() {
switch(rand.nextInt(3)) {
default:
case 0: return new Circle();
case 1: return new Square();
case 2: return new Triangle();
} }
Shapes
A telescope and a television set are both specializations of "device that enables one to
see things far away.“ A television set is also a kind of "electronic device." You might say that a
television set acquires characteristics from two different generalizations, "device that enables one
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 to see things far away" and "electronic device." Interface abstract “class” Helps defining a “usage
contract” between classes All methods are public Java’s compensation for removing the multiple
inheritance. You can “inherit” as many interfaces as you want. Therefore, a television set is a
product of multiple inheritance.
Conclusions
Real Life Examples give more clear idea to understand Object Oriented Concepts. Let’s
make easy to learn OOP.
References
1.
2.
3.
Java the UML Way Else Lervik and Vegard B. Havdal
www.deitel.com, How To Program Java
Thinking in JAVABruce Eckel
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 THE IMPACT OF SELFISH NODE BEHAVIOR ON ARIADNE AND SEAD SECURE ROUTING
PROTOCOLS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORK
Shahriar ShamilUulu Vedat Kiray Niyazi Ari
International Ataturk Alatoo University, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
University of Technology Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
E-mail: shahriar@iaau.edu.kg, vkiray@hotmail.com, nari@hsz-t.ch
ABSTRACT
Ad hoc networks are infrastructureless mobile wireless networks with a dynamic
topology, where nodes join and leave the network, often without warning, and possibly without
disruption to other node’s communications. The nodes in MANETs have several constraints (i.e.
power limitations, computational limitations, connectivity limitations, selfish behavior, memory
limitations, etc.). Ad hoc networks are susceptible to various types of passive and active attacks.
Selfishness (an active attack) is a type of node misbehavior that is specific to ad hoc
networks which is caused by lack of cooperation. In this work we study two types of selfish
misbehavior attacks and evaluate the impact of them on Ariadne and SEAD secure routing
protocols, first one is called as a black-hole attack where selfish nodes just drop all the packets
they receive. The second one is called as a gray-hole attack with more intentional and
sophisticated behavior, where selfish nodes drop packets according to some criteria (for example
drop all data and forward control packets). We have launched both black-hole and gray-hole
attacks and shown that the selfish nodes degrade the performance of these secure routing
protocols and effect overall network operations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Wireless networking is a rapidly evolving technology that allows users to access
information and services electronically, without being tied down to office or home desktop
installations. Ad hoc networks belong to the category of wireless networks that are said to be
infrastructureless networks as opposed to those, which depend on fixed infrastructure like
repeaters, base stations etc.
The nodes in an ad hoc network are mobile and can be connected dynamically in a
random manner. Each node here needs to work as a router and take part in route discovery and
maintenance activities as a service to other nodes in the network. Some examples of ad-hoc
networking include conference participants using laptops to share information, nodes in
emergency search-and-rescue operations, meetings or conventions or data acquisition
operations in inhospitable territory, etc. Nodes are free to move arbitrarily thus, the network
topology is typically multi-hop, so may change randomly and rapidly at unpredictable times.
Wireless links will continue to have significantly lower capacity than their hardwired counterparts.
Some or all of the nodes in a mobile ad-hoc network may rely on batteries or other exhaustible
means for their energy. There is limited physical security. Mobile wireless networks are generally
more prone to physical security threats like jamming than are fixed-cable nets.
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In this section, we briefly describe the key features of DSDV and DSR. We assume that
reader is familiar with the concept of functioning of protocols. In case if there would be some gaps
or confusion in understanding of explanations of the given protocols, we advice to approach to
the given references.
1.1.1 DSR Rotuing Protocol
The DSR [1] is a simple and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for use in
multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes. It is an on-demand routing protocol. Using
DSR, the network is completely self-organizing and self-configuring. The DSR protocol allows
nodes to dynamically discover a source route across multiple network hops to any destination in
the ad hoc network. Each data packet sent then carries in its header the complete, ordered list of
nodes through which the packet must pass, allowing packet routing to be trivially loop-free and
avoiding the need for up-to-date routing information in the intermediate nodes through which the
packet is forwarded. DSR uses the route caches to store routes. DSR also supports
internetworking between different types of wireless networks, allowing a source route to be
composed of hops over a combination of any types of networks available. For more detailed
information on functioning of DSR refer [1].
1.1.2 DSDV Routing Protocol
The DSDV described in [2] is a table-driven algorithm based on the classical BellmanFord routing mechanism [14]. The improvements made to the Bellman-Ford algorithm include
freedom from loops in routing tables. It maintains a routing table to store routes. Every mobile
node in the network maintains routing table, in which all the possible destinations within the
network and the number of hops to each destination are recorded. Routing table updates are
periodically transmitted throughout the network in order to maintain table consistency and
transmit updates immediately when significant new information is available. For more detailed
information on functioning of DSDV refer [2].
1.2 Overviews of Studied Security Protocols
In this section, we briefly describe the key features of Ariadne and SEAD. We have
extensively studied these two secure routing protocols, which secure the DSR and DSDV routing
protocols respectively and done the simulations with existence of selfish nodes that perform two
types of selfish attacks (see Section 2.2) varying the number of selfish nodes and status of nodes
(i.e., constant and random). For results refer Section 3.
1.2.1 ARIADNE Secure Routing Protocol
Ariadne [8] is secure on-demand ad hoc network routing protocol prevents attackers (or
compromised nodes) from tampering with uncompromised routes consisting of uncompromised
nodes, it also prevents a large number of denial-of-service attacks and attacker models. Ariadne
is efficient; it only uses highly efficient symmetric cryptographic primitives. Ariadne is more secure
and more general (e.g., Ariadne does not require a trusted infrastructure and does not require
powerful processors). Ariadne uses TESLA broadcast authentication protocol [9] as a mechanism
for authentication of mobile nodes. For more detailed information on functioning of Ariadne [8, 9,
1].
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SEAD [7] is a secure ad hoc network routing protocol based on the design of the DSDV
routing protocol is robust against multiple uncoordinated attackers creating incorrect routing state
in any other node, even in spite of active attackers or compromised nodes in the network. SEAD
uses efficient oneway hash functions and Merkle hash trees [13] rather than rely on expensive
asymmetric cryptographic operations in the protocol. Each node in SEAD uses a specific single
next element from its hash chain in each routing update that it sends about itself (metric 0).
Based on this initial element, the one-way hash chain conceptually provides authentication for the
lower bound of the metric in other routing updates for this destination; the authentication provides
only a lower bound on the metric, since it does not prevent a malicious node from claiming the
same metric as the node from which it heard this route. In particular, the one-way hash function
provides the property that another node can only increase a metric in a routing update, but cannot
decrease it. For more detailed information on functioning of SEAD refer [7].
2 SIMULATION CONFIGURATIONS
2.1 Configuration of MAC Protocol and Radio Model
Simulations and results of secure routing protocols are based on ns-2 (versions
cmuextendedns-1.1.2.tgz) [3, 5, 6]. We have configured MAC protocol according to Distributed
Coordination Function (DCF) of IEEE 802.11 for wireless LANs, where the 802.11 DCF uses
Request-To-Send (RTS) and Clear-To-Send (CTS) control packets for unicast data transmission
to a neighboring node. The RTS/CTS exchange precedes data packet transmission and
implements the form of virtual carrier sensing and channel reservation that reduces the impact of
the well-known hidden terminal problem. An unslotted carrier sense multiple access (CSMA)
technique with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is used to transmit the data packets.
The radio model uses characteristics similar to a commercial radio interface, Lucent’s
WaveLAN. WaveLAN is modeled as a shared-media radio with a nominal bit rate of 2 Mb/s and a
nominal radio range of 250 m is used in both simulations of routing and secure routing protocols.
Each node has a queue for packets awaiting transmission by the network interface that holds up
to 50 packets and is managed in a drop-tail fashion. Ariadne/DSR can buffer separately an
additional 50 packets that are awaiting discovery of a route through the network. Routing packets
get higher priority than data packets [1, 4].
2.2 The Traffic and Mobility Models
In our simulations we use Constant Bit Rate (CBR). It is worth mentioning here that CBR
traffic sources are used over UDP Protocol and as such there are no retransmissions for lost or
dropped packets. We simulate the traffic sources separately but under the same circumstances.
Nodes in the simulation move according to a model that we call “random waypoint” model [3, 5].
The 64 bytes of fixed size data packets are used.
Secure routing protocols are simulated in 1500x300 terrain and overall with 50 nodes
where configuration is 20 sources with variations of 2,4,6,8 and 10 selfish nodes (where selfish
nodes are set constantly or randomly) with randomly chosen speed between 0-20m/s. As stated
before we have defined and simulated the selected secure routing protocols with two selfish types
of attacks, which are:
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 Black-hole Attack: The nodes that are executing this attack drop all received packets
silently such that they do not participate in normal network functionality. We execute this attack in
two cases. In first case the selfish nodes have a constant selfish behavior throughout the
simulation and for the second case some nodes randomly assume the selfish behavior.
Gray-hole Attack: The nodes that execute this attack forward control packets but drop all
data packets. This attack shows more sophisticated behavior where selfish nodes will not be
erased from routing tables and routing caches of neighboring nodes. However no data reaches
application layer. We also execute this attack in two cases.
We have done 54 simulations on Pentium IV, 256 MB, Linux RedHat 7.3. The simulation
time for all simulations is 900 seconds.
2.3 Generation Selfish node Attacks
For generation of selfish nodes we have done changes to source codes of Ariadne and
SEAD [8, 7] (i.e., source codes downloadable from CMU Monarch Project website) and the two
functions, which will launch black-hole or gray-hole attacks by selected nodes (i.e., constantly or
randomly).
We would like to mention that black-hole and gray-hole attacks are general names and
can be implemented and executed in more sophisticated and complex way.
2.4 Performance metrics
We have evaluated overall packet delivery ratio as a metric for study the impact of selfish
nodes and variation of them on secure routing protocols, the definition is given below.
Packet delivery fraction - The ratio between the numbers of packets originated by the
‘application layer’ CBR sources and the number of packets received by the CBR sink at the final
destination.
3 SIMULATION RESULTS
Packet Delivery Ratio
3.1 Ariadne Results Graph Representations
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
94.2
84.2
73.7
0
2
4
70.2
6
74.21
8
70.1
10
V a ria tion of S e lfish node s
Figure 1: Packet Delivery Ratio for Black-hole attack with constant selfish nodes
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Packet Delivery Ratio
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90
80
70
60
50
40
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20
10
0
94.2
85.6
0
2
78.5
4
72.7
65.4
6
8
61.9
10
Variation of Selfish nodes
Packet Delivery Ratio
Figure 2: Packet Delivery Ratio for Black-hole attack with random selfish nodes
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
94.2
76.4
64.2
61.2
50.4
39.2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Variation of Selfish nodes
Figure 3: Packet Delivery Ratio for Gray-hole attack with constant selfish nodes
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90
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70
60
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0
94.2
85.7
0
2
79.1
4
73.8
6
67.46
8
63.4
10
Variation of Selfish nodes
Figure 4: Packet Delivery Ratio for Gray-hole attack with random selfish nodes
3.2 SEAD Results Graph Representations
Packet Delivery Ratio
120
100
96.4
80.6
80
69.9
60.1
66.52
60
59.8
40
20
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
Variation of Selfish nodes
Figure 5: Packet Delivery Ratio for Black-hole attack with constant selfish nodes
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120
100
96.4
85.4
75.5
80
68.3
60.1
60
53.9
40
20
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
Variation of Selfish nodes
Figure 6: Packet Delivery Ratio for Black-hole attack with random selfish nodes
Packet Delivery Ratio
120
100
96.4
80
67.4
64.8
52.4
60
50.9
37.9
40
20
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
Variation of Selfish nodes
Figure 7: Packet Delivery Ratio for Gray-hole attack with constant selfish nodes
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120
100
96.4
85.2
80
76.3
68.9
61.6
60
55.6
40
20
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
Variation of Selfish nodes
Figure 8: Packet Delivery Ratio for Gray-hole attack with random selfish nodes
4 DISCUSSIONS
We focus our attention on evaluation of the impact of selfish attacks defined in Section 2.2 in secure
routing protocols in terms of global packet delivery fraction, where variations (i.e., 2, 4, 6, 8, 10) of nodes
are defined to be misbehaving. Misbehaving nodes are operating independently. The nodes, which execute
the black-hole attack, drop all the packets they receive and do not participating in route discovery
processes. Such nodes can be easily identified and avoided by the techniques exposed in [10, 11, 12], if
and only if the selfish nodes are constant. So we can see from the results that it has less data packet drops
as compared to other. But this selfish attack becomes dangerous when the nodes are randomized, because
in such situation some nodes, which were participating in network operations before, can drop all the
packets and cannot be identified. The nodes, which execute the gray-hole attack, participate in route
discovery and route maintenance processes but drop all data packets they receive such that they use
network resources but do not cooperate, saving battery life for their own communications. This type of
attack carries more intentional character.
The above selfish attacks do not intend to directly damage other nodes but degrade the overall
network performance. We believe that the selfishness problem is of great interest because nodes of a
mobile ad hoc network are often battery-powered. Thus, energy is a precious resource that they may not
want to waste for the benefit of other nodes. As shown in the results of our simulations the impact of selfish
nodes on network operation is large. The route discovery and advertisement strategies are similar to routing
protocols DSR and DSDV in Ariadne and SEAD respectively with minor differences [8, 7].
4.1 Black-hole Attack with Constant Nodes
This type of attack with constant nodes has a lower damage on network functionality then other
ones (see the Figures 1 and 5). Due to the fact that the constant nodes drop all the control routing packets
which has to be forwarded, they will not exist in the routing tables or caches of their neighbors but in such
network the optimal paths to the destinations maybe longer. In Ariadne the selfish nodes data packet drops
traced as a “route request timeout”, the reason is selfish source nodes drop data packets generated to other
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 nodes. When application layer agent will parse the data packet to the routing agent, it first checks the route
to the destination, if it is not available it sends the route request, if no reply is received during the defined
period of time it drops the data packet. That’s why we don’t have selfish node’s drop track. If the source
node’s routing agent receives route error for some destination for which it has a data packet to send it drops
the packet as no route to the destination. In SEAD we can see there is selfish node drops and “no route to
the destination” drops. The reason is the source selfish nodes drop their own data packets. As we know
there is no control packets (i.e., route request, route reply, route error) in SEAD like in Ariadne instead the
nodes will interchange routing tables changes periodically so it will mark the dropped packed as selfish
drop. We can see that for the 8 selfish nodes there are fewer packet drops as compare to 6 and 10 due to
the reason that source selfish nodes will drop the packets that were intended to other nodes the same thing
is applicable between 6 and 10 selfish nodes. We would like to mention that even during selection of
constant nodes they are elected randomly.
4.2 Black-hole Attack with Random Nodes
As we can see from Figures 2, 6 the impact of this type of selfish attack is dangerous. Due to the
reason that the nodes, which were participating in the network functionality, can misbehave at the current
time and drop all receiving packets. Such nodes still will be in the routing tables or caches of the
neighboring nodes. It would be very tough to track and identify the mobile nodes of this type by the
techniques, which were exposed in [10, 11, 12], due to the drawback of each technique. For instance if we
apply the watchdog and pathrater [11], the ad hoc topology that we defined frequently changes so the paths
from source to destination also frequently changes and in addition to that the nodes which were
misbehaving will change state and the goodness of path selected is invalidated. As such that we can
observe that the packet delivery ration is oppositely proportional when selfish nodes will increase the packet
delivery ration will decrease.
4.3 Gray-hole Attack with Constant Nodes
The gray-hole attack carries more intentional character and greater danger. This attack with
constant nodes is evaluated as a most dangerous one. It can be easily seen from the figures that the impact
of it is very large, and the misbehaving nodes can participate in route discovery and maintenance processes
but drops all the data packets such that they will persist in routing tables of mobile nodes. The selfish nodes
that launch, this type of attack can be identified by the techniques in [10, 11, 12] where the neighbor nodes
involvement for detection is must. The drawback of this selfish attack is that since the misbehaving nodes
are detected they can be easily avoided. As we can see this attack is also opposite proportional as the
number of selfish nodes increases the packet delivery ratio decreases.
4.4 Gray-hole Attack with Random Nodes
We evaluate the gray-hole attack with random nodes as a most difficult to identify due to the
explained characteristics and constraints. In our topology case where the mobility is high, it results in
frequent path and topology changes. The first issue is that selfish nodes will be recorded in the routing
tables and caches of neighboring nodes due to the fact that no control packet will be dropped as a selfish
drop. The second issue is the randomness of the selfish nodes, making detection quite tough.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No2, Year 2008 CONCLUSION
The area of mobile ad hoc network has been receiving increasing attention among researchers in
recent years. In ad hoc networks the fact is that, multihop packet forwarding may be necessary before a
packet reaches a destination so for that reason reliable routing protocol is needed. As we already
mentioned that selfish nodes can be part of any mobile ad hoc network.
In this paper we evaluated the impact of the selfish type attacks defined in Section 2.2. We showed
that the gray-hole attack is more dangerous than the black-hole attack. The selfish attacks with constant
nodes can be easily detected as compare to the random ones. The impact of these selfish attacks is higher
in SEAD as compared to Ariadne. In conclusion it appears that none of the techniques proposed in Section
2.2 has been integrated so far to secure routing protocols Ariadne and SEAD to thwart selfish attacks.
FUTURE WORK
The area of mobile ad hoc networking is an ocean of research. There is a lot of work that still has to
be done to improve the performance, and at the same time maintain security and cooperation. In the future
we plan to integrate selfish node detection techniques into Ariadne and SEAD. This work can be extended
in many directions. For instance, implement more complex selfish and compromising attacks and evaluate
the impact of them.
Most security routing solutions also make unrealistic assumptions about the availability of key
management infrastructure that is in contrast with the very nature of mobile ad hoc networks. As the
technology for ad hoc wireless networks gains maturity, comprehensive security solutions based on realistic
trust models and addressing mostly prevalent issues like: routing, key management and cooperation
enforcement are expected to appear.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Dr. Thang Chun Hoa, Dr. David A. Malts, and all members of Ns
and Manet mailing groups who have shared answers for our doubts.
REFERENCES:
[1] David B. Johnson, David A. Maltz, and Josh Broch. “The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol for Multi-Hop
Wireless Ad Hoc Networks”. Ad Hoc Networking, edited by Charles E. Perkins, Chapter 5, pp. 139-172,
Addison-Wesley, 2001
[2]. Charles E. Perkins and Pravin Bhagwat. “Highly dynamic Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector
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[3]. Ns-2 network simulator. Currently ns development is support through DARPA with SAMAN and through
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substantial contributions from other researchers, including wireless code from the UCB Daedelus and CMU
Monarch projects and Sun Microsystems.http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/
[4]. Elizabeth M. Royer, C-K Toh. “A review of current Routing protocols for Ad hoc Mobile Wireless
Networks”. Published in “IEEE Personal Communication Magazine”1999.
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Eitan Altman, Tania Jimenez http://www sop.inria.fr/mistral/personnel/Eitan.Altman/ns.htm.
[6]. Ns documentation manual. http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/. Documentation includes a tutorial (originally
from Marc Greis) and a reference manual (ns notes and documentation).
[7] Yih-Chun Hu, David B. Johnson, and Adrian Perrig. “SEAD: Secure Efficient Distance Vector Routing for
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& Applications (WMCSA 2002), pp. 3-13, IEEE, Calicoon, NY, June 2002.
[8] Yih-Chun Hu, Adrian Perrig, and David B. Johnson. “Ariadne: A Secure On-Demand Routing Protocol for
Ad Hoc Networks”. Proceedings of the Eighth ACM International Conference on Mobile Computing and
Networking (MobiCom 2002), pp. 12-23, ACM, Atlanta, GA, September 2002.
[9] Adrian Perrig, Ran Canetti, Dawn Song, and J. D. Tygar. “Efficient and secure source authentication for
multicast”. In Network and Distributed System Security Symposium, NDSS ’01, February 2001.
[10] L. Buttyan, J.-P. Hubaux, Nuglets. “A virtual currency to stimulate cooperation in self-organized ad hoc
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[11] S. Buchegger, J.-Y. Le Boudec. ”Performance Analysis of the CONFIDANT Protocol”. In Proceedings of
MobiHoc 2002.
[12] P. Michiardi, R. Molva.” Core: A COllaborative REputation mechanism to enforce node cooperation in
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