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REFERENCES The first textbook was always on my desk when I was preparing these lecture notes. I also list wikipedia, which was the source for many of the images and animations plus many useful tidbits of information. Energy and Environment Professor Halim Gürgenci (visitor from the University of Queensland) Rm 4245; Phone : (212) 359 6436 halim.gurgenci@boun.edu.tr ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Specific references are supplied on every slide except when the slide content is part of common mechanical engineering lore and can be found in any relevant textbook. • Fay, James A, and Golomb, Dan S, Energy and the Environment, Oxford University Press (2002). • Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Vehicle Registrations in Turkey 12 10 Transportation Includes cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles, and tractors millions of vehicles Module 8 http://www.tuik.gov.tr 8 6 4 2 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 1 Types of Vehicles Internal Combustion Engines 6 • Spark-Ignition (otto cycle) http://www.tuik.gov.tr millions of vehicles 5 – Two-stroke – Four-stroke 4 3 • Compression-Ignition (diesel cycle) 2 1 Tractor Spec Purpose Motorcycle Truck Small truck Bus Minibus Land vehicle Automobile 0 ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Four-Stroke Engine 1 – Intake 2 – Compression 3 – Combustion (Power Stroke) 4 - Exhaust ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Some Facts • Combustion takes place in about 50o, which is 2.31 ms at a crankshaft speed of 3600 RPM • The air and fuel are premixed • Combustion is initiated by a spark – Knocking is an issue because of the advancing flame front started by the spark 3 2 4 1 ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) • To reduce power, the inlet is throttled (reducing the amount of air+fuel mixture) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 2 Two-Stroke Engine Compression-Ignition (Diesel) • The charge is introduced at the end of the compression stroke and self-ignites as it enters the combustion chamber – No knocking -Exhaust and Intake are combined and fresh charge displaces the combustion products -Lower fuel efficiency and noise make these less and less desirable -Their use is limited to lawnmovers and small vehicles like motorcycles -Honda has recently announced that they are phasing out their 2-stroke engine designs and all new Honda motorcycles will be based on 4-stroke cycles ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) • The A/F ratio must be well above the stoichiometric ratio to allow all fuel molecules meet oxygen molecules for combustion • The power is adjusted by metering the fuel • Higher compression ratios are possible because knocking is not an issue Æ higher thermal efficiencies • Old diesel engines had high soot (unburned particles) in their exhaust. They are getting better. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engines have the potential to provide high, diesel-like efficiencies and very low emissions. In an HCCI engine, a dilute, premixed fuel/air charge autoignites and burns volumetrically as a result of being compressed by the piston. The charge is made dilute either by being very lean, or by mixing with recycled exhaust gases (http://www.ca.sandia.gov/crf/research/combustionEngines/EGR.php ) This technology is still at developmental stage. Engine Power Pb = BMEP × Ve ×N n BMEP Avg pressure through the cycle (called Brake Mean Effective Pressure) Ve Engine displacement (Cylinder volume x No of cylinders) n Number of crank revs per cycle (2 for 4-stroke; 1 for 2-stroke engines) N Crankshaft speed Pb Brake Power (available on the engine output shaft before the transmission) For cars running Spark-Ignition (SI) cycles, BMEP = 1 – 1.5 MPa. The BMEP stays more or less constant across the speed range. Note that the two-stroke engine delivers twice the power at the same BMEP and volume. That is why it is suitable for small engines (albeit at the cost of reduced efficiency and increased pollution). New Scientist ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 3 BMEP and Brake Power Thermal and Fuel Efficiency • • • • SI cycle efficiency < 31% LHVgasoline = 43.55 MJ/kg SGgasoline=0.72 Best BSFC = 0.27 kg/kWh BSFC[kg/MJ] = • • • • CI cycle efficiency < 44% LHVdiesel = 41.18 MJ/kg SGdiesel=0.85 Best BSFC = 0.20 kg/kWh 1 ηth × LHV [MJ/kg] Fay&Golomb, Figure 8.4 ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Vehicle Performance ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ρV Wair = CD A 2 3 Air Drag CD Drag coefficient determined by CFD or wind tunnel(1) testing, ~ 0.25–0.50 A Frontal area, m2 r Density of air, kg/m3 V Vehicle velocity, m/s (1) http://wright.nasa.gov/airplane/tunnlint.html has an excellent computer simulation of the wind tunnel Wright brothers built to test their airplane in 1901. Not exactly related here but I thought I should include it. Picture on the web – designed in a wind tunnel? Computers can be used to predict forces on planes as well as cars The engine should provide enough power to overcome the resistance to motion (air drag, rolling fraction, gravity) and to accelerate the vehicle. Weng = Wair + Wroll + W grav + Wacc http://fantasygoat.livejournal.com/8178.html ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) http://www.engineers.auckland.ac.nz/~snor007/cfd.html ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 4 Rolling Friction As seen on the left, the tyres deform in motion. Due to this deformation, the net resultant force on the tyre coming from the road acts slightly to the front of the centre, generating a torque resisting motion. The engine has to generate the power to compensate for this force : Hill climbing While climbing, the engine has to provide the torque required to overcome the force of gravity: W grav = mgV sin θ Wroll = CR mgV http://webphysics.davidson.edu/faculty/dmb/PY430/F riction/rolling.html where m and V are the vehicle mass and speed, respectively. CR depends on the elasticity of the tyre and the road. The following table can be used. Tyre Type Ordinary car tyre on concrete Car on stone plates Car bus on asphalt Train wheels – steel on steel Tram wheels on standard rails from wikipedia CR 0.010 – 0.015 0.020 0.030 0.001 – 0.0025 0.005 ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Acceleration The difference between the engine power and the resistance to motion goes to accelerate the vehicle: Wacc = mVV + I ωω = Weng − (Wair + Wroll + W grav ) where m and V are the vehicle mass and the velocity, respectively. I and ω represent the acceleration of rotating components such as the crankshaft, tyres, etc. They are usually represented by a small correction ε on the vehicle mass and Wacc = m(1 + ε )VV = Weng − (Wair + Wroll + W grav ) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) The Fuel Economy The Turkish Law requires the car vendors to provide data on the fuel economy and the CO2 emissions for the cars they are selling (Yeni Binek Otomobillerin Yakit Ekonomisi Ve CO2 Emisyonu Konusunda Tüketicilerin Bilgilendirilmesine İlişkin Yönetmelik, Resmi Gazete Tarihi: 28/12/2003). The Turkish codes comply with the European Union testing standards for definition of fuel economy and CO2 emissions. Summary from a larger table on the American Fuel Economy Web Site. The fuel economy is given as MPG(miles per gallon). City represents urban driving – the car started in the morning (after being parked all night) and driven in stop-and-go rush hour traffic. Highway represents a mixture of rural and interstate highway driving in a warmed-up vehicle, typical of longer trips in freeflowing traffic. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 5 Improving Fuel Economy • Improve Vehicle Performance – Reduce vehicle mass by smaller cars and/or lighter materials – Reduce aerodynamic resistance Electric Vehicles The electrically-powered trolley-buses, trams, and trains have been with us for a long time. These are powered by overhead cables and therefore constrained to specific routes. • Limited by the laws of physics but there is usually no mass penalty for reduced drag – Rolling resistance • New tyres can be made with smaller CR but degrades with time • Improve engine performance – Intake stroke losses – Turbocharging fits more air/fuel – smaller engine means smaller vehicle mass – Use CI instead of SI • the trade-off between increased efficiency and increased engine mass • the diesel has higher emissions (being addressed with new cars) A Dutch trolley bus (wikipedia) A street tram in Hannover (wikipedia) – Continuously-Variable Transmission – Use the best “gear ratio” at all speeds • Hybrid cars – The fuel replacement must justify the extra mass required by the hybrid system ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Hybrid Electric Vehicles ICE The challenge for free-range elecric vehicles is the on-board storage of electricity. At the current level of storage technology (90-180 kJ/kg), the electric vehicle is not a feasible option unless it is favoured for other reasons, for example to avoid air pollution in crowded cities. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Exhaust Emissions Internal Combustion Engine MG1 Motor / Generator 1 (typically "closer" to the engine and "smaller") MG2 Motor / Generator 2 R, C, S Ring, Carrier (Planet) and Sun Gear Fay&Golomb, Figure 8.9 ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 6 Emission Legislation - USA In most countries, the exhaust emissions are tightly controlled by legislation that is getting increasingly stringent. US and European codes are important. US has traditionally been more concerned with particulate matter and NOx emissions than the fuel economy. California has the most stringent emission standards of the world. The two codes are converting at the heavy-duty end but there are still significant differences at the light vehicle end. US codes specify the emissions by g/mile. The baseline is given by the “Tier 1” standard. Further limitations are specified under the following categories: TLEV – Transitional Low Emission Vehicle LEV – Low Emission Vehicle Emission Legislation - Europe The following has been introduced over the past decade: Euro 1 (1993) for passenger cars - 91/441/EEC [2] (also 93/59/EEC) Euro 2 (1996) for passenger cars - 94/12/EC (& 96/69/EC) Euro 3 (2000) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC Euro 4 (2005) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC (& 2002/80/EC) Euro 5 (2008/9) for any vehicle - (COM(2005) 683 Compliance is determined by running the engine at a standardised test cycle. Noncompliant vehicles cannot be sold in the EU, but new standards do not apply to vehicles already on the roads. ULEV – Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle SULEV – Super-Ultra Low Emission Vehicle ZEV – Zero Emission Vehicle Since 2005, US has been phasing in “Tier II”, which introduces more string versions of the above, e.g. TLEV-II, LEV-II, etc, and some new ones. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Diesel Emission Limits - EU wikipedia ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) EU Emission Limits for Petrol Cars wikipedia ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 7 “Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006 “Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006 Turkish Automotive Industry Turkish Emissions Codes UYGULAMA TARİHLERİ SGMSGM-2000/77 – 03.12.2000 , SGMSGM-2001/7 – 17.06.2001 ve SGMSGM-2001/12 – 22.10.2001 Tebliğ Tebliğlerine Gö Göre Emisyon Mevzuatı Mevzuatı: PROTOTİP ONAY YILI MOTOR SİLİNDİR HACMİ (cc) 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 ÜRETİM BAŞLANGICI 01.01.199 4 01.01.1995 01.01.1996 01.01.199 7 01.01.1998 01.01.1999 01.01.2000 EURO 93 EURO 93 EURO 93 EURO 93 EURO 93 1800 ve üstü 15.04* EURO 93* 1600 - 1799 15.04 15.04 EURO 93* EURO 93 EURO 93 EURO 93 EURO 93 1400 - 1599 15.04 15.04 15.04 EURO 93 * %30 EURO 93* %60 EURO 93* %100 EURO 93 15.04 EURO 93* 1399'dan küçük 15.04 15.04 15.04 15.04 15.04 Benzinli Araç Araçlar Faz III (98/69/ATve 1999/102/AT ile değ değişik 70/220/AT OBD hariç hariç) Yeni Araç 01.01.2001 Araçlar Mevcut Araç 30.09.2001 (01.07.2001) (SGM/2001/7) Araçlar Hafif Dizel Araç Araçlar (91/441/AT ile değ değişik 70/220/AT veya R 83.01) Yeni Araç 01.01.2001 Araçlar Mevcut Araç 31.12.2002 (01.01.2002) (SGM/2001/12) Araçlar Ağır ğır Dizel Araç Araçlar Faz I (91/542/AT ile değ değişik 88/77/AT veya R 49.02) Yeni Araç 01.01.2001 Araçlar Mevcut Araç 31.12.2002 (01.10.2001) (SGM/2001/12) Araçlar ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) “Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006 “Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006 Turkish Fuel Standards More Turkish Codes on Exhaust Emissions Tebliğ Tebliğlerden sonra Yö Yönetmelikler yayı yayınlanmış nlanmışttır. Bunlar; 70/220/AT Yö Yönetmeliğ netmeliği (24.09.2003 – 25239 sayı sayılı R.G) Akaryakı Akaryakıt kalitesi ile ilgili 98/70/AT Yö Yönetmeliğ netmeliğinde belirtilen tedbirlerin yürürlü rlüğe giriş girişiyle Yeni araç 01.01.2007 araçlar Mevcut araç 01.01.2008 araçlar 88/77/AT Yö Yönetmeliğ netmeliği ( 24.06.2003 – 25148 sayı sayılı R.G) Yeni araç 01.01.2007 araçlar; Mevcut araç 01.01.2008 araçlar; Ayrı Ayrıca Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı Bakanlığı Tarafı Tarafından Yayı Yayınlanan Yö Yönetmelikler: • 98/70/AT Benzin ve Motorin Kalitesi Yö Yönetmeliğ netmeliği (11.06.2004 – 25489 sayı sayılı R.G) • Trafikte Seyreden Motorlu Kara Taşı tlarıından Taşıtlar kaynaklanan Egzoz Gazı Gazı Emisyonları Emisyonlarının Kontrolü Kontrolüne Dair Yö Yönetmelik (08.07.2005 – 25869 sayı sayılı R.G) 72/306/AT Dizel Motorlardan Çıkan Kirletici Emisyonlar 80/1268/AT CO2 Emisyonları ve Yakıt Tüketimi 80/1269/AT Motor Gücü ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 8 Gasoline Prices in Turkey Alternative Fuels ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Ethanol-Gasoline Comparison ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Engine Wear with Ethanol Pure ethanol and gasoline behave similarly. Extra wear is caused by water. Unfortunately, ethanol is more likely to contain water as part of the production process and also because it absorbs water. Yahagi, Y & Mizutani, Y 1984, 'Corrosive Wear of Steel in GasolineEthanol-Water Mixtures',Wear, vol. 97, pp. 17-25. (quoted by Andrew Prout) Sinor, J & Bailey, B 1993, 'Current and Potential Future Performance of Ethanol Fuels', SAE Paper, vol. 930376. (quoted by Andrew Prout’s Thesis at UQ) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 9 Corrosion with Ethanol Australian studies (see Andrew Prout’s Thesis) observed no appreciable wear and corrosion at 10% ethanol. Wear on some engine components were observed at 20% ethanol. This is most likely due to the water content in ethanol. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Energy budget for Ethanol? ScienceDailyCom reports : Pimentel and Tad W. Patzek, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Berkeley, conducted a detailed analysis of the energy input-yield ratios of producing ethanol from corn, switch grass and wood biomass as well as for producing biodiesel from soybean and sunflower plants. Their report is published in Natural Resources Research (Vol. 14:1, 65-76): • corn requires 29 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced; • switch grass requires 45 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced; and • wood biomass requires 57 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced. They had similar results for biodiesel: • soybean plants requires 27 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced, and Ethanol Production Ethanol in US is produced from corn; in Brazil from sugar cane. In USA, 103 ethanol plants has the capacity to produce 5000 million gallons of ethanol per year, mostly from corn. According to a 1995 study by the US Dept of Agriculture(1), , The US corn yield is about 110-120 bu/acre, which is 0.70-0.75 kg/m2 or 1.7-1.9 t/dönüm (2). Average ethanol conversion is about 2.5 gallons/bushel or 0.37 liters of ethanol from one kg of corn. (1) Estimating the Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol. By Hosein Shapouri, James A. Duffield, and Michael S. Graboski. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Office of Energy and New Uses. Agricultural Economic Report No. 721. (2) 1 bushel of corn is exactly 56 pounds or about 25.4 kg. 1 US gallon = 3.78 litres. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Ethanol Conflict Environmental Management News, 19 September 2006 SEVERAL experts are arguing that use of food crops and livestock feed to produce ethanol and biodiesel could push up food prices. A Reuters report last week said one-fifth of this year's corn crop in the US would be used to produce ethanol for use in vehicles. "In our rush to secure our energy security, we could easily neglect the fundamental need for food security," Reuters quoted Dan Glickman, who was agriculture secretary during the Clinton administration, as telling a House of Representatives sub-committee on agriculture. Glickman said US ethanol output could double to 10 billion gallons (around 13.8 billion litres) annually by 2010, pushing corn prices to record levels. •sunflower plants requires 118 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced Other people differ with Pimental and Patzek but their numbers seem to add up. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 10 Cost of corn Turkish corn to cost more in 2006 • Corn prices go up and down. Lately, they have been going up due to demand from ethanol in USA • The price reached $3/bu in June 2006; some predict prices of $5/bu in the future • The average ethanol conversion is 2.5 ga/bu • Corn cost in ethanol is then around $1/ga or ¢26/L. • The corn prices in the past lagged behind the petroleum prices (see next slide). This might change if ethanol from corn stays. • The corn price in Turkey is around 30 yeni kurus/kg, which translates to $5/bu. Ethanol in Turkey will cost more than US ethanol because Turkish corn costs more. KONYA - Türkiye Ziraat Odaları Birliği (TZOB) Yönetim Kurulu Üyesi ve Konya'nın merkez Meram ilçesi Ziraat Odası Başkanı Mustafa Hepokur, genelde tavuk yemi olarak kullanılan mısır fiyatının, kuş gribi nedeniyle geçen yıl yetiştirenleri zarara uğrattığını, bu yıl ise 36 YKr seviyelerine yükselerek yüzünü güldürdüğünü belirtti. Hepokur şunları söyledi: "Geçtiğimiz yıl 28-30 YKr civarında satılan mısırın fiyatı, şimdi 36 YKr seviyelerine çıktı. Bunda, yeniden toparlanan tavukçuluk sektörünün mısır talebini artırmasının payı büyük. Mısır üreticilerimizin durumu geçtiğimiz yıla göre daha iyi. Mısır fiyatı bu seviye ya da biraz daha yukarıda seyrederse durumdan memnun oluruz. Ancak fiyatın düşmesi durumunda mısır üreticisi yine zarar eder.“ ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Corn Prices in Canada Mısır fiyatı 36 YKr'ye çıktı www.dunyagazetesi.com.tr 29/09/2006 08:35:12 ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) Biofuels in Turkey Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı tarafından hazırlanan ‘Ulusal Biyoyakıt Raporu’ndan: Ülkemizde Biyoetanol ağırlıklı olarak şeker fabrikalarında melastan üretilmektedir. Ülkemizin yıllık benzin tüketimi 4.5 milyon m3 ‘tür. TSE standartlarında kabul edildiği gibi % 5 karışım esas alınarak hesaplandığında yıllık 225 000 m3 biyoetanole ihtiyaç vardır. Mevcut teknoloji ile 1 lt biyoetanol için 2.5 kg buğday kullanılması gerekir. Biyoetanol üretiminin artırılabilmesi için hammadde üretim miktarlarının artırılması gerekir. Biyoetanol üretimi için en uygun hammaddeler mısır ve buğdaydır. Her iki ürünün üretimlerinin de ülkemizde artırılma imkanı vardır. Mısır üretiminin 5 yıl içerisinde 8 milyon tona, buğday üretiminin de 23 milyon tona çıkartılması mümkündür. Yıllık motorin tüketiminin yaklaşık 10 milyon ton olduğu ülkemizde % 2 lik karıştırma oranı için biyodizel ihtiyacı 200 000 m3, ’dür. http://www.ontariocorn.org/facts/spec0796.html , a special report posted on the web site of Ontario Corn Producers’ Association. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 11 Gas-To-Liquid South African Sasol is building the world’s largest facility in Qatar to convert reservoir gas to diesel fuel. Qatar plant will open at the end of 2006 and will generate the equivalent of 34000 barrels a day at a capital investment of about US$1b (EMN,24/11/06). The Qatar process is sketched in the diagram on the left. Note that the bottom part (the actual GTL process) can be implemented with any methane-rich gas including the syngas that can be obtained by coal gasification. ©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey) 12