US-China Education Review 6B
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US-China Education Review 6B
US-China Education Review B Volume 3, Number 6, June 2013 (Serial Number 25) David Publishing David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Educational Sociology, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Güner Tural Professor Michael Eskay Professor Cameron Scott White Professor Gil-Garcia, Ana Professor Lihshing Leigh Wang Professor Peter Hills Professor Diane Schwartz Professor Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Professor Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to teacher@davidpublishing.org or teacher@davidpublishing.com. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.org or http://www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: teacher@davidpublishing.org, teacher@davidpublishing.com, edu1658@yahoo.com Copyright©2013 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLC Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory ASSIA Database and LLBA Database of ProQuest Excellent papers in ERIC Norwegian Social Science Data Service (NSD), Norway Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd (UDLSB), Malaysia Summon Serials Solutions Subscription Information: Price (per year): Print $600 Online $480 Print and Online $800 David Publishing Company 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: order@davidpublishing.org D DAVID PUBLISHING David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com US-China Education Review B Volume 3, Number 6, June 2013 (Serial Number 25) Contents Educational Sociology The Role of Religious Communities in the Integration and Wellbeing of Immigrants 423 Maria Helena G. Pratas Narratives and Experiences: The Social Memory of the Heitor Carrilho Hospital in the Context of Deinstitutionalization 429 Lobelia da Silva Faceira, Francisco Ramos de Farias An Islamic Perspective on the Role of Education in Responding to Social Issues Among Students in Malaysia Nik Rosila Nik Yaacob 439 Higher Educational Management The Development of Basic Competencies for Sustainability in Higher Education: An Educational Model 447 Luis Amador Hidalgo, Juan Manuel Arjona Fuentes Lifelong Learning Resource Integration Strategies for Elder Education Organizations: A Case Study in Taichung, Taiwan 459 Chi Hu Tien, Wen Chi Tsai Educational Psychology Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes Towards Inclusion Education and Comparison of Self-compassion Levels 470 Aydan Aydin, Seher Kuzu Special Education Collaboration in Special Education: Its History, Evolution, and Critical Factors Necessary for Successful Implementation Stephen J. Hernandez 480 D US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 June 2013, Vol. 3, No. 6, 423-428 DAVID PUBLISHING The Role of Religious Communities in the Integration and Wellbeing of Immigrants Maria Helena G. Pratas CEIA, Center for Studies and Applied Research; ISEC (Instituto Superior de Educação e Ciências), Lisbon, Portugal The author intends to present the role of religious communities in the integration and wellbeing of immigrants in Portugal. The Portuguese constitution clearly defines the fundamental right of freedom of conscience, religion, and worship for all religions (art.13º, 41º). Religious communities are separated from the state and are free in their organization and cults. The most represented religion is Roman Catholicism and other religious communities are formed almost entirely by immigrants and their descendants. As in many other parts of the world, migrants turn to religious organizations in search of support. This happens in Portugal with religious organizations who welcome migrants, irrespective of their cultural or religious affiliation (Vilaça, 2008). Religious communities in Portugal—as in other countries—have been playing a key role in integrating new immigrants: They help to resolve emotional and other problems, such as unemployment, housing, language courses, education, advocacy, social services, as well as to establish contacts with other persons and institutions and contribute to their social integration (Pires, 2003). This is not a process of cultural assimilation, but of reciprocal exchanges (Portes, 1998; Putnam, 2007). Religious communities work as agents to be able to build bridges with dimensions that are beyond the range of action of any political force (Vilaça, 2008). Keywords: religious communities, immigrants, cultural diversity, integration, wellbeing How to Manage Cultural Diversity? The Portuguese Approach From having been a country with a large-scale emigration, Portugal, since the last decades has also become a hosting country for immigrants. Since the late 1990s, the geography of immigration to Portugal has undergone profound changes. Today, different communities now make up 4.5% of the population resident in Portugal (more than 500,000 legal immigrants) and about 9% of the active population come from diverse nationalities and diverse cultural backgrounds. Massive increase of immigration from Eastern Europe to Portugal has prompted a great debate about immigration policy. Immigration increased 400% in 15 years (ACIDI (the High Commission for Immigration and Intercultural Dialogue, I.P.), 2010). Recently, the economic crisis has led to stabilization in migrant flows. In the last decades, different national laws have been created or developed in order to accommodate immigrants. National Plans for the Hosting and Integration of Immigrants have been launched, considering sector-based areas, such as employment, health, housing, solidarity and social security, education, and Maria Helena G. Pratas, Ph.D., principal investigator, CEIA, Center for Studies and Applied Research; senior lecturer, ISEC (Instituto Superior de Educação e Ciências). 424 ROLE OF RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES, INTEGRATION AND WELLBEING OF IMMIGRANTS crosscutting themes, e.g., welcoming immigrants and their descendents, family reunification, racism, and discrimination. This National Plans adopted a holistic approach to integration. The current Plan for Immigrant Integration (2010-2013) was approved by Decree-Law 74/2010, in September 2010, comprising 90 measures across various policy areas. The key objective continued to be the full integration of immigrants in culture, language, employment, professional training, and housing. It highlighted the promotion of diversity and intercultural dialogue, and elderly immigrants. It also promotes cultural and religious diversity, especially through the media (measure 76). ACIDI—the High Commission for Immigration and Intercultural Dialogue, I.P.—is a public institute launched in 2006. Its fundamental attribute is the promotion of the welcoming and integration of immigrants and ethnic minorities in Portugal. It is endowed with a board of personnel specialized in all the dimensions involving hosting, reception, support, and integration of immigrants and works in partnership with the immigrant associations. Its policy of welcoming and integrating immigrants in Portugal is based around seven key principles: equality, dialogue, citizenship, hospitality, interculturalism, proximity, and initiative. It considers that it is essential to reinforce the alliance with bodies from civil society through empowering their flexible and, normally, more efficient intervention (ACIDI, 2010). The context of economic crisis and worries about security arising from international terrorism have made this task even more urgent, using the media and interpersonal contact, in a spirit of co-responsibility with the NGOs (non-governmental organizations) and immigrant associations, which protect the specific rights and interests of immigrants and of their descendants resident in Portugal, to enjoy dignity and equal opportunities (ACIDI, 2010). In 2007, ACIDI and the IEFP (Institute for Employment and Professional Training) established a network of 25 job centers specifically for immigrants, formed through partnerships with local organisations—principally immigrant associations. There is also an immigration observatory, in order to deepen knowledge about the reality of immigration in Portugal and to specify, carry out, and evaluate efficacious policies regarding the integration of immigrants. It acts in a network, through cooperation with universities, research centres, and other institutions, in order to generate sustainability (ACIDI, 2010). The United Nations Human Development Report of 2009 placed Portugal at the top of the ranking in immigrant integration policy. This report acknowledges the initiatives taken by Portugal in this area to be at the cutting edge of immigrant policy, with Portugal given the top ranking in the attribution of rights and services to foreigners residing in the country. Wellbeing, Happiness, and the Search for Meaning The so-called “happiness hypothesis” is being explored across a range of disciplines from the 1990s onwards (Atherton, 2008; Layard, 2003; Graham, 2009). They confirmed that increasing economic prosperity in western economies is not matched by greater levels of recorded happiness. Among other authors, the work of the economist Layard has attracted much public debate over recent years. He considered that despite rising levels of material prosperity in the west, incidence of recorded happiness and greater quality of life has not increased accordingly: “There is a paradox at the heart of our lives. Most people want more income and strive for it. Yet as western societies have got richer, their people have become no happier” (Layard, 2005, p. 3). Recent research and combinations of qualitative and quantitative data from economists, psychologists, and social statisticians have been consolidated into seven key indicators of wellbeing: firstly, secure family relationships which point to the centrality of people’s need for love, affirmation, and mutuality in their lives; ROLE OF RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES, INTEGRATION AND WELLBEING OF IMMIGRANTS 425 secondly, income; thirdly, work, not just as provider of financial security, but as source of relationships, meaning, and self-worth; fourthly, networks of community and friends as important sources of good social capital; fifthly, health; and the sixth indicator is personal freedom, in terms of opportunities to participate in decision-making and take part in community activities and the seventh indicator is personal values and philosophy of life (Layard, 2003; Graham, 2009). The economist and researcher Richard Lanyard referred that the clearest statement he knew is in Victor Frankl’s book Man’s Search for Meaning when he wrote about his experiences in Auschwitz and concluded that, “Everything can be taken from a man but one thing, the last of human freedoms—to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances” (Frankl, 1985, p. 89). In considering the major contributory factors to happiness and wellbeing, Layard said that one of the most robust findings of happiness research is that “people who believe in God are happier” (Layard, 2003, p. 12). “Layard is not alone in identifying the significance of religious values and participation in religion for positive and enduring levels of happiness” (Graham, 2009, p. 5). In terms of explaining the correlation between religion and wellbeing, however, the consensus seems to be that there is powerful “added value” in religion for engendering forms of social capital (Graham, 2009). The theory of “social capital” tries to understand the sources of social solidarity and what motivates people to participate actively in social and political networks, locally, nationally, and globally. The political scientist Robert Putnam (2000) is credited for generating much of the current interest in the term following the publication of his book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Definitions of social capital vary, but it can be summarized in a simple phrase: relationships matter (Field, 2001). He stated: By making connections with one another, and keeping them going over time, people are able to work together to achieve things that they either could not achieve by themselves, or could only achieve with great difficulty. People connect through a series of networks and they tend to share common values (…). To the extent that these networks constitute a resource, they can be seen as forming a kind of capital. (Field, 2001, p. 1) The World Bank described social capital as “the institutions, relationships and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions” (1999). Putnam has probably led the way in charting how religious values and organizations serve as rich sources of social capital, which foster networks and relationships that seem to contribute most decisively to healthy social networks and thus to quality of life. Research from the WTF (William temple foundation) in Manchester distinguishes between two dimensions of religion as social capital. Religious capital is what religion contributes, in terms of tangible outcomes and social goods; “spiritual capital” is, by contrast, the reason why of the religious contribution: “The motivating basis of faith, belief and values (…) that shapes the actions of faith communities” (Baker & Skinner, 2006, p. 9). This research identifies seven dimensions of spiritual capital: emphasis on transformation, personal and corporate engagement; valuing personal experience and narrative; belief that God is at work in social change; acknowledging affective dimensions of political activism; values of vulnerability, forgiveness, risk, learning, and transformation; unconditional acceptance of everyone; and cultivating people’s inner resources. It considers religion as one of the most potent sources of values and principles and a powerful synthesis of belief and action (Baker & Skinner, 2006). The re-emergence of religion globally, including into public life, is being more recently matched by the growing interest, in the religious contribution to social capital, or the capacity to build social networks within and across various parts of civil society. Graham (2009) focused on the so-called happiness hypothesis and the 426 ROLE OF RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES, INTEGRATION AND WELLBEING OF IMMIGRANTS consideration of the potential role and contribution of religious values and organizations: “If the question of happiness and wellbeing is multi-disciplinary and multi-dimensional, then the question of religion emerges as one, not insignificant, element of that” (Graham, 2009, p. 6). Some authors thought that religious affiliation might contribute to greater mental and emotional wellbeing; provision of resources, such as social support and networks; promotion of positive self-esteem; acquisition of specific life-skills and coping resources, such as a framework of understanding illness, stress or loss; generation of positive emotions, cultivation of disposition towards forgiveness, hope, and transformation (Swinton, 2007). And Eckersley stated: “All in all, wellbeing comes from being connected and engaged, from being suspended in a web of relationships and interests. This gives meaning to people’s lives” (Eckersley, 2007, p. 54). What About Religious Communities in a Global World? Religious freedom is acknowledged and enshrined in the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Openness to the transcendent belongs to the fundamental dignity of every human person. It is acknowledged that there are many religious freedom violations all over the world: 32% of the countries on the Earth, comprising 70% of the world’s population, have high or very high restrictions on religious freedom (Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2009). As even a cursory survey of the contemporary landscape reveals, the religious liberty of individuals, families, associations, and institutions is under growing threat from many different directions. Flagrant violations abound. Tensions are mounting between the claim of universality and the diversity of practices and interpretations. Religious freedom is often attacked in the name of other rights and values. There is increasing conflict and confusion about the relations among the various bodies responsible for implementing human rights at local, national, and supranational levels. The problem of fostering habits of respect and tolerance for the religions of others remains acute. And religion continues to be used by some as a pretext for violence. (Glendon & Zacher, 2012, p. 20) At the global level, no religion has a majority position (Cole Durham, 2012). Even in countries that at one point had relative religious homogeneity, the percentage of adherents to the dominant religion is declining (Glendon & Zacher, 2012). The Council of Europe White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue recognizes that religious practice is part of contemporary human life, and it, therefore, cannot and should not be outside the sphere of interest of public authorities (Council of Europe, 2008). It considers that: Part of the world’s rich cultural heritage is a range of religious conceptions of the purpose of life. Christianity, Judaism and Islam, with their inner range of interpretations, have deeply influenced our continent… Freedom of thought, conscience and religion is one of the foundations of democratic society and protected by Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights. (Council of Europe, 2008, pp. 22-24) Research shows that religious minorities are proliferating around the world, due to many factors, such as labor force movement, refugee flight, trade, education, etc.. It also shows that religious freedom promotes peace by reducing inter-religious conflict (Farr, 2008). The Role of Religious Communities in the Integration of Immigrants: A Case Study Interaction and exchange among people of different religious traditions can be a mutual enrichment. Inter-religious dialogue means to go beyond distrust or suspicion to respectful acceptance, hospitality, and collaboration at all possible levels. ROLE OF RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES, INTEGRATION AND WELLBEING OF IMMIGRANTS 427 The Portuguese constitution clearly defines the fundamental right of freedom of conscience, religion, and worship for all religions (art.13º, 41º). In relation to the state and political power, the religious communities are autonomous and free in their organization and cults. Freedom is given to teach any religion and to use the media for the appropriate activities. The great majority of Portuguese people are Roman Catholic (84%), although only 10.3% practice their religion (according to a census in 2001). Other religious communities are: Orthodox, Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, Evangelical, etc., formed almost entirely by immigrants and their families. As in many other parts of the world, migrants turn to religious organizations in search of support. This happens in Portugal with catholic organizations who welcome migrants, independently from their cultural or religious affiliation, as states a recent study about 17 orthodox religious communities all over the country (Vilaça, 2008). Research and questionnaires applied in Portugal to immigrants from various eastern countries (Ukrainians, Moldovans, Romanians, and Russians) point in the direction that religious communities, even culturally diverse, represent a common space of identity. Religious practice improves in the situation of Diasporas, contributing to the consolidation of high levels of religiosity within the orthodoxy of their churches. Religion is, for many of those questioned (90%), more intense in exile and an essential dimension in their lives (Vilaça, 2008). There is an intense relation between their communities and the Catholic Church—through the work of Catholic migrations and their secretariats all over the country, especially with recent new comers from Eastern Europe. Migrants are grateful to religious communities—also to the Catholic Church, by the support received, at many levels (Vilaça, 2008, pp. 56-57). The degree of confidence in their own Churches and also in the Catholic Church score prominently in relation to other institutions. They have also expressed significant confidence (above 50%) in state institutions and public administration, especially those focusing on immigration. Religious communities in Portugal have been playing a key role in integrating new immigrants; they help to resolve emotional and other problems, such as unemployment, housing, language courses, education, advocacy, social services, as well as to establish contacts with other persons and institutions (Vilaça, 2008) and they contribute to their social integration. This is not a process of cultural assimilation, but of reciprocal exchanges (Portes, 1998; Putnam, 2007). Conclusions Immigrants are now major parts of the social Portuguese system. They contribute to the renewal of the population, to the economic development, and to revitalizing of cultural and social behaviours. National laws have been created or developed in order to accommodate them. But still, there is a journey to do (Antunes, 2009). Religious communities work as agents to be able to build bridges with dimensions that are beyond the range of action of any political force (Vilaça, 2008). References ACIDI (Alto Comissariado para a Imigração e Diálogo Intercultural, I.P.). (2010). Retrieved November 19, 2010, from http://www.acidi.gov.pt Antunes, A. B. (2009). Female immigrant workers in Portugal. Lisbon: GEP. Ariarajah, S. W. (2006). Wider ecumenism: A threat or a promise? The Ecumenical Review, 50, 30-55. Atherton, J. R. (2008). Transcending capitalism: An enquiry into religion and global change. London: SCM Press. 428 ROLE OF RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES, INTEGRATION AND WELLBEING OF IMMIGRANTS Baker, C. R., & Skinner, H. (2006). Faith in action: The dynamic connection between spiritual and religious capital. Manchester: William Temple Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.wtf.org.uk/documents/faith-in-action.pdf Cole Durham, W. Jr. (2012). Religious freedom in a worldwide setting: Comparative reflections in universal rights in a world of diversity. In M. A., Glendon, & H. F., Zacher (Eds.), Universal rights in a world of diversity—The case of religious freedom (pp. 350-377). Vatican City: PASS. Council of Europe. (2008). White paper on intercultural dialogue: Living together as equals in dignity. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Eckersley, R. M. (2007). Culture, spirituality, religion and health: Looking at the big picture. Medical Journal of Australia, 186(10), S54-S56. Farr, T. (2008). World of faith and freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. Field, J. (2001). Social capital. London: Routledge. Frankl, V. (1985). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Basic Books. Glendon, M. A., & Zacher, H. F. (Eds.). (2012). Universal rights in a world of diversity—The case of religious freedom. Vatican City: PASS. Graham, E. (2009). Health, wealth or wisdom? Religion and the paradox of prosperity. International Journal of Public Theology, 3, 5-23. Layard, R. (2003). What would make a happier society? In Lionel Robbins Memorial Lectures 2002/3 delivered on March 3-5, 2003 at the London School of Economics. Retrieved November 14, 2011, from http://cep.lse.ac.uk/events/lectures/layard/ RL050303.pdf Layard, R. (2005). Happiness: Lessons from a new science. London: Allen Lane. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. (2009). Global restrictions on religion. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org /uploadedFiles/Topics/Issues/Government/restrictions-fullreport.pdf Pires, R. P. (2003). Migrações e integração: Teoria e aplicações à sociedade portuguesa. Oeiras: Celta Editora. Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1-24 Presidency of the Council of Ministers and ACIDI. (2007). Plan for immigrant integration. Retrieved from http://www.acidi.gov. pt/docs/pdf Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster. Putnam, R. (2007). E-pluribus Unum: Diversity and community in the twenty-first century: The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 137-174. Swinton, J. (2007). Researching spirituality and mental health. In M. E. Coyte, P. Gilbert, & V. Nicholls (Eds.), Spirituality, values and mental health (pp. 292-305). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. The World Bank. (1999). What is social capital? PovertyNet. Retrieved October 13, 2008, from http://www.worldbank.org/ poverty/scapital/ whatsc.htm Vilaça, H. (2008). Immigration, ethnicities and religion: The role of religious communities in the integration of Eastern European immigrants. Lisbon: ACIDI. D US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 June 2013, Vol. 3, No. 6, 429-438 DAVID PUBLISHING Narratives and Experiences: The Social Memory of the Heitor Carrilho Hospital in the Context of Deinstitutionalization Lobelia da Silva Faceira Francisco Ramos de Farias Federal University of the State PPGMS (Post-Graduate Program in Social Memory); of Rio de Janeiro—UNIRIO, Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro—UNIRIO, Francisco, USA Francisco, USA This paper is part of an interdisciplinary project held at the post-graduation programme on social memory at the Federal UNIRIO (University of the State of Rio de Janeiro). It aims at investigating and constructing the memory of the Heitor Carrilho Hospital a detention institution which admits criminals who have been diagnosed with morbid mental disorders, this being the justification for their crimes and for the consequences in terms of treatment. Firstly, we will examine the archives of Heitor Carrilho Custody and Treatment Hospital (Rio de Janeiro), the first institution of such type in Brazil, focusing on documents ranging from its foundation documentation to current legal policies on public health, which suggests a trend towards de-institutionalization in accordance with Act 10.216/2002. Next, we will focus on the narratives arising from the perceptions of the management team on the dynamics of the institution and on the inmates, and from the perceptions of the inmates—referred to as mentally ill criminals—on the crime they have committed, the consequences of the act, the institutional confinement, and the public mental health policies. The investigation will involve three interdependent methodological stages: a documentary survey, an ethnographical survey, and interviews. Our reflection on the reports will also consist of three stages: (1) Firstly, we will focus on the elements present in each of those reports that could constitute a memory segment; (2) Secondly, we will study the narrative with the purpose of constructing an understanding of the institution’s memory and the way both the inmates and the management team perceive the institution and its functioning; and (3) Finally, we will highlight, among the fundamental distinctions obtained from the accounts, the significant points that will lead to the construction of the institution’s memory as well as possible ruptures that may isolate elements and links that connect the meanings guiding the institutional dynamics. Keywords: crime, madness, custody, treatment, social memory Introduction: Memories of Madness in an HPTC (Hospital for Psychiatric Treatment and Custody) The institutions of imprisonment have undergone major transformations without losing the purpose of segregation of man’s social life. Regarding the arrest records the change in condition of detention space, where the imprisoned was waiting for the punishment to place punitive incarceration. In the 20th century comes a Lobelia da Silva Faceira, Ph.D., School of Social Service, Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro—UNIRIO. Francisco Ramos de Farias, Ph.D., PPGMS (Post-Graduate Program in Social Memory); Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro—UNIRIO. 430 NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL prison space to house, not exactly criminals but “insanecriminals”, well considered from the endorsement of medical knowledge testify in a state of mental insanity. Such space that slides often in their practices, from a prison to a mental hospital, is currently subject to questioning because its inhabitants suffer from mental disorders which contradict the determinations of the policy of internment of these individuals. Given this circumstance, it is intended to analyze how the madness makes its appearance in the context of legal practice, used as an argument to explain the motivation for the crime. Locate the advent of hybrid institutions that house insanecriminals for treatment under the regime of monitoring and control is also considering the possibilities of these spaces are also punitive. In the case of the criminal, for whom the medical knowledge goes back one by one, the filigree of memory condition of insanity, has been the withdrawal of the right of respond by the act committed, considered incapable, and therefore, not convicted, leaving the burden of the state to be treated. But, this individual who should be treated committed a crime that does not fade with the declaration of his state of insanity, reason why should target the incidence of medical practice, but under constant custody of the security and legal apparatus. In this respect, one should be considered as a particularity: The prisons, as ideals of rational ordering of the democratic system to protect society from those who endanger life and property, have proven ineffective, since its inception, as well as institutions for madmen, radically transformed with the policy of deinstitutionalization that greatly reduced the population segregated in these spaces. However, in psychiatric hospitals of custody in treatment this reformation is still suggested so that conditions of separation and control are maintained due to the identification of the danger of its admitted. In these institutions, the offense is registered in the meshes of insanity, giving the criminal a statute which circulates in different dimensions of arrested and crazy at the same time. Given the ambiguity present in the practices that focus on the insanecriminal, we ask what direction should be taken when medical knowledge legitimates, in the criminal, a state of insanity to justify the commission of a crime. Treatment, monitoring, and imposition of disciplinary order are the first images produced by the apparatus in charge of recovering the individual from the determinations of the normative system of society. This is not about to punish and isolate the malignant element, to avoid contagion of evil, nor to correct the guilty to reinstate him to the society, but to end the dangerousness upon a treatment of mental illness in remarkable isolation in which lies the weight of two stigmas: crime and insanity. We do not aim at the discipline of rebel bodies into docile ones anymore, but the temporary reclusion necessary to recrudescence of psychic insanity. The institutionalization under these conditions does not always produce the expected results that often, for being long, crystallize, irreversibly, the state of insanity. It should be noted that there is a kind of blind violence when a crime is committed by a person who is in a state of psychic disturbance. This strand is understood as the expression of the slope of the evil that compels the individual to act crazy without the social fabric had any relationship with it. We know that there is a political strategy to create an enemy, as well as a special kind of power to be, in him, incarnated and the insanecriminal, as other figures produced in human history, can serve to continue the list. Hence then, the actions of combat and defense, sometimes legitimizing forms of violence justified in the name of treatment but that represent methods of segregation and control (Carrara, 1998). Not that we are denying the existence of the criminal or crazy as categories produced historically from the advent of the modern era, but pointing out that there are strategies sponsors of violence and that there are forms of violence that remain covert as happens when madness becomes part of the prison’s scenario. Thus, there rises a question: Is it an “existential suffering that some subjects would be tempted to assimilate a given disease or mental suffering would be linked to social NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL 431 context” (Kamerer, 1997, p. 56)? Anyway, we know the direction shown by the medical expertise: The state of madness motivated and justified the crime. But, it should be considered as a crime of violence with the set of associated factors without which the end of the process of the subject is reduced to a mere diagnosis. Often, the closure of the subject in a line diagnostic results in the application of measures that act as restriction of rights and significant losses within psychic due to segregation relative to life in prison, even if the place is called psychiatric hospital of custody and treatment. In the chase of the insanecriminal to regain lost mental health and legitimized the crime, the consequences are costly subjectively, inferred that, to adapt to the new environment, which requires a psychic transformation, since “no prison reform, but manufactures delinquency and delinquents” (Foucault, 1979, p. 136). This same reasoning can be thought of in relation to forensic hospitals, as many internees segregated living much of their lives, sometimes, a temporality that far exceeds the maximum time of sentencing law. The justification is submitted on behalf of dangerousness that never ceases as with Febrônio Indio do Brazil, hospitalized in Heitor Carrilho Hospital, which was received at the hospital in 1927, remaining until 1984, the year of his death, held in custody, since their psychiatric symptoms did not stop, and according to expert reports, he was a dangerous man to society. This internee portrays, in an exemplary manner, the conjunction of violence and the power of medical and judiciary apparatus that, with powerful gears, isolated from the context of social relations for more than half a century a state of insanity understood as an evil germ that should be controlled under constant vigilance (Fry, 1982). Of this Web, the insanecriminals can hardly escape. The crime and incarceration, as well as insanity and confinement for treatment affect the living conditions of the insanecriminal, once we see the reproduction of violence in the social Web and the feared and ferocious enemy is controlled. So, the insanecriminal is conceived as a sort of toxic rest, to be disposed of social relations in “obscene rituals that occur under the ghostly plan of power” (Zizek, 1998, p. 89). Therefore, coercive measures were justified. In our daily life, the figure who occupies the place of the enemy, incarnating the figure of evil, is the loucocriminoso which often has no definite place in the knowledge that determines their condition. They are either treated as mental patients when medical knowledge comes into play or considered bandits before the eyes of the security apparatus. They are still considered unable to answer for themselves by legal knowledge. These fields of social practice work, effectively, to maintain the supposed enemy, considered as the maximum concentration of evil, increasingly distant from the context of social relations, with minimal chances of return. Then to distribute, it remains the major task of separating the criminals, mad, and loucoscriminosos of citizens, because they are considered violent and cruel that spread horror. This kind of separation unwavering hides two important aspects. Firstly, it creates the illusion that the loucocriminoso is the one that focuses evil, motives chosen to ensure the supposed goodness of a citizen who believes himself as suitable, even when is agent of certain transgressions that considers natural; and secondly, polarizes evil in maximum intensity in loucocriminoso means to the social Web, sustains a posture of removal, without any worries to understand the various nuances of the psychic condition of the one who engaged in the fateful ritual of crime and also in planning to provide programs to restructure loucocriminoso against disruptions resulting from the crime and then segregation determined by the security measure. We need to think the determination of crime, but also the conditions of possibility for the lives of those who are considered untouchable, beyond the administration of large doses of psychotropic drugs for immobilization and control of hospitalized. Here is destiny for insanity when associated with crime in custodial and treatment institutions. Regarding the crime motivated by a state of insanity, we face a paradox what is stated in the contradiction 432 NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL inherent in the system where the subject is engaged, because as stated by Carrara (1998, p. 69), the loucocriminoso is “perceived as attack on society and rupture of the social contract that constitutes”. So then, there are functional apparatuses that must manage it on behalf of the defense of society. But we need to make a cut in this complex issue and ask, and this contradiction is not the mirror and the motor of cruelty, when grouped into the same category of acts of such diverse natures and purposes: crime and insanity. Thus, our goal is to pursue understanding of a nuance of this theme, tracking the untouchable subject, conditions referred to want to speak about their subjective determination, that is, understanding what the motion that leads an individual to perform a crime and follow the developments arising this act: incarceration, subjective experience of loss, and attempt to restore the condition of citizenship. It is crucial at this point of reflection, inquiring what the benefits of hospitalization for loucocriminoso and society are. If we focus on the gaze documentary collections of the institutions designed for the treating of this category of excluded, we note the ineffectiveness of institutional practices in enabling conditions so that the subject can manage his life within society. This suggests that the fate of loucocriminoso is to stay glued to the institution, either the stigma arising from the grim conditions impacting upon, crime and insanity, either the gradual transformation that happens in subjective arrangements due to insertion into the culture of the institution which represents irrecoverable losses. But what is the action of the state to the hospitalized? That is: Which possibility does the hospitalized find that will forever be marked by this identity, to restore his subjective condition lost by crime and also the condition of incarceration? For the hospitalized, insanity and crime break the tenuous link that served as support to the possibility of circularity in the context of symbolic exchanges. For one who committed a crime, motivated by a state of insanity, as pointed by Guiraud (1994), there must be another way out: to restore what is broken within subjectivity. Behold the desired forwarding on this research that attempts to silence the insanity in a prison space. Thus, the reflections produced anchor in academic dialogues based on the following assumptions: (1) questioning of interconnections between various research strategies that can generate different types of corpora; (2) depth investigation of concepts of social memory (Gondar, 2005; Jelin, 2002) and institutional relations in the specific context of research on the overlap between legal and clinical knowledge; (3) the way that the overlapping records of the loucocriminosos occur during the investigation and legal psychiatric treatment; (4) the use of discourse analysis in social interactionist perspective (Goffman, 2002; Tannen & Wallat, 2002) as a methodological tool adequate to evoke experiences/narratives that emerge from different socio-political contexts of the institutional world and the world of the narrative (Linde, 1993; Mishler, 2002); and (5) the discussion of the involvement of the researcher and the relationship between the narrator and the narrated story (Pinto & Nascimento, 2012) based on the paradigm of studies of narrative adopted in the research. Equally important is the transdisciplinary look to address emerging issues in the interface between criminology and psychology clinic. Thus, we pause to investigate the institutional practices of the Heitor Carrilho Hospital in the context of deinstitutionalization, from the analysis of a case study, noting the settings designed and constructed discursively. A Memory of Heitor Carrilho Hospital The dynamics of an asylum institution has its own nuances, considering the field of social memory, to the extent that embraces two aspects of exclusion: mental illness and crime (Pinto, Farias &, Gondar, 2012). In this sense, building memory, basing themselves in routine practices of an institution of custody and treatment in the context of deinstitutionalization, involves following specific paths to consider: (1) the time before the entry of NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL 433 the subject in the institution, i.e., crime; (2) the fact that the subjects share the institutional space with the police, correctional officers and mental health professionals; and (3) the relationship with other individuals in similar conditions (all others admitted to the institution are deprived of their freedom), and insanity, theoretically, an important factor to justify the crime. The Heitor Carrilho Hospital sheltered and shelters internees called loucoscriminosos: Individuals who, due to a “mental disorder”, commit a crime and are considered exempt from punishment by the judiciary from the consideration of a medical report. After observation, the subject is designated as a safety measure, a hospital-prison of the penal system. Regarding these institutions, Carrara (2010, p. 17) noted that: In Brazil, as the so-called “criminally insane”, the Criminal Code of 1890 said they were just criminally irresponsible and should be handed over to their families or interned in public asylums, if they so “requiring” public safety. The choice in each case was an assignment of the judge. In 1903, a special law for the organization of legal medical assist for alienated in the Federal District, a model for the organization of these services in the various states of the Union (Dec.1132 of 22/12/1903), established that each state should pool resources to the construction of judicial asylums, and as such institutions do not exist, should be built special attachments to public asylums for their collection. From the law of 1903, in the wake of the reforms introduced in the National Insane Asylum, located in Rio de Janeiro, it creates a special section to house the “criminally insane”. The Judicial Asylum in Rio de Janeiro had as its first director the psychiatrist Heitor Pereira Carrilho. In the 1950s, in honor of this director, the institution was called Heitor Carrilho Judicial Asylum. Later, in 1986, it came to be designated as Heitor Carrilho Custody and Psychiatric Care Hospital. It is located in the neighborhood of Estacio, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, next to the land that was occupied until its implosion in March 2010 at the Frei Caneca Penitentiary. Judicial asylums institutions are as hybrid complex and contradictory since embrace a dual function: guard and treat. Goffman (2002) showed that a single structure of social relations—total institutions—can be found both in prisons and in mental hospitals, both institutions are pervaded by the power relations, discipline, and the presence of physical barriers. A total institution is a place where a person in a similar situation, separated from society for a considerable period of time, leads a life closed and formally administered. Such sites, according to Foucault (2002), configure institutional sequestration network that imprisons the existence of individuals, taking charge of the control of their time. Under the legislation, the insane criminal is subject to punitive legal intervention models and psychiatric therapy. In this sense, the operation of the Heitor Carrilho Hospital is permeated by criminal enforcement of public policies, social care, and mental health. Since 2010, based on mental health policy, which calls for deinstitutionalization of psychiatric patients and a policy enforcement that prioritizes criminal internalization of the sentence, the Heitor Carrilho Hospital goes through a period of intense transformation. Currently, the institution receives no more patient-prisoner who entered the penal system, passing a function as output port. Receives also chemically depend on women. The Law 10216 of April 6, 2001, the so-called psychiatric reform law, together with resolutions No. 5 of 2004 and No. 4 of 2010 of the National Council on Criminal and Penitentiary Policy were determinant in changing the scenario of HPTCs in Rio January. The law proposes the end of compulsory psychiatric hospitalizations and termination of asylum-profile institutions and establishes a policy to assist the mentally ill based on the notion of citizenship. This law advocates, in its Article 5, that patients with a high degree of dependence of the institution should be targets of public policies so that they can be reintegrated into society. The resolutions cited above extend this standard to judicial asylums. Reflections policy guidelines in mental 434 NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL health institutions on the order of confinement of the mentally ill are clear. The policy of deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill has produced many changes in the Heitor Carrilho Hospital. In the period from 2010 to 2012, 81 admitted they received guidance for discharge and left the institution. It is worth noting that, from a joint action of the prosecutor and public defender of the State of Rio de Janeiro and coordination of mental health at the municipal and state levels and the performance of multidisciplinary teams, the number of cases of discharge and the subsequent establishment of projects to therapeutic psychosocial reintegration of the ex-admitted increased substantially. A Research in an HPTC: The Heitor Carrilho Hospital Because of its existence resulting from the need for a place to house people who were unable to evaluate the psychological consequences of their actions when they committed a crime, professionals working in this hospital are both in the health area (doctors, psychologists, nurses, and social workers) as in the area of public safety (prison safety inspectors). From this that the institution itself is presented as a challenge to anyone who wants to build his memory: How to compose the memory of an institution that emerges as marked by the imposition of an identity and that feeds the confirmation of this identity? How can we think about the composition of a memory that aligns a non-technique vision, if when entering the institution, we already know that its existence is due to a need of transformation of those who are hospitalized, so that they only exist as subsistence? From these questions, we analyze the case of Maria dos Anjos, not seeking to answer them just for that specific case, but to reflect on the social memory of the Heitor Carrilho Hospital. Given the impasses of deinstitutionalization of hospitalized is focused on the situation of Maria dos Anjosthat in three decades, was imprisoned in total three institutions: prison, hospice, and mental hospital. Before identifying her peculiarities, we present biographical aspects that are shed in complexities in her path. Northeastern from poor backgrounds, she lived with her mother, father, and two brothers. She arrived in Rio de Janeiro by truck ride to stay with her relatives after her father left the family due to alcoholism and her mother claimed that she was not able to raise her, by being very messy. At the age of 12, she began to use drugs, then she left school. At the same age, a blast crisis broke the leg of her aunt, having been admitted to a psychiatric clinic. At the age of 15, she was delivered by her aunt to juvenile court, remaining recluse until 19 years old when she began to prostitute herself, and perform small thefts. She got pregnant and after giving birth, the child was donated under the allegation of being unable to raise it. In her second pregnancy, she came to see her son, but the maternity reported that the child was born dead, did not accept that version, which is actually the reason for aggressive incidents, for which she was arrested red-handed when attacking a nurse with shard of glass. Forwarded to a psychiatric hospital for mental problems and unrestrained aggression, she killed another hospitalized and came to be guarded for treatment. Currently, though not hospitalized, she still lives in bureaucratic institution due to circumstances related to the absence of documentation, which makes obtaining benefits, such as the back to home program, for her future referral to a shelter or to a residence therapy, unavailable. This is the second problematic aspect that expresses the complexity of this case. Faced with such circumstances, what should the process of social reintegration be inquired, since Maria dos Anjos is not hospitalized anymore, but remains in the institution? Theoretical and Methodological Framework We assume that the Heitor Carrilho Hospital is a place of memory, “... places, in fact, in all three senses of NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL 435 the word: material, symbolic, and functional at the same time...” (Nora, 1993, p. 21). According to Dodebei (2000, p. 64), “There is no memory without documents”. The Latin term “documentum”, according to Le Goff (2003), derived from Docere “teaching”, evolves to the meaning of “proof” that also seems to be the meaning that common sense attaches to the term (Dodebei, 2005). However, the entire document is a social construct, as it is the result of socio-historical conditions that circumscribe its creation. Thus, “The document is not innocuous. It is, first and foremost the result of an assembly, conscious or unconscious, of that time, the company which produced it...” (Le Goff, 2003, p. 103). It comes into play interpretation and analysis of production conditions that allow its maintenance and preservation. Therefore, we direct the look, in this investigation, to the fact that the construction of memory must be held away from the mere rescue of a past, whether its preservation is its transmission, which is the reason why, methodologically, we must distinguish what of the past is useful for the construction of a memory, what is expendable, as the cult celebration that today is closely linked to memory. This means that our intent is to discriminate filigrees events for constructing a productive remembrance. For this reason, the study of memory in this research has the character to be a process and product of shared meanings imposed by agents with administrative functions, the agents who carried out the crime and are caught, the legal provisions that legislate on the operation of the institution and finally the participation of the group of researchers moved from theoretical tools for analyzing the complex relations woven from the convergence of different contingents of human experience. In other words, we are interested in the meanings engendered by the joint action of human beings, an institution in a given historical moment. Memory is the restoration of the present accomplished through language and social practices. The case study of Maria dos Anjos was drawn from the documentary analysis of records of more than 600 pages of the hospitalized segments and transcription of conversations between this hospitalized and a member of the research group, recorded on video. With regard to the conversations, they were treated by analysis of narratives (Linde, 1993; Riessman, 2010), which promotes a field given to interactional settings not found in other speech genre. Thus, the analysis of narratives is a window to the understanding of transient processes and fluids of identity configurations that are constantly in the process of becoming something, to integrate to new Webs of belonging that they do and they crumble in an unlimited social game: remember in order to narrate, in other words, to provide, through the narrative, the organization of experience, placing chaos and the fragments in an order and a bearable logic creating a dynamic of past/present in the order of discourse. The narrative operates in the world of the story, the immediate context (what to tell for those now) and concomitant socio-historical contexts in particular. Soon, the whole story is confined locally and macro-socially. As mentioned above, the life of Maria dos Anjos is crossed by several stories whose pillars are foreclosure, abandonment and violence experienced within her family, street and several hospitalizations in total institutions. Below, we highlight some stories about the hospitalized, which explain the various exclusions and violence experienced by herself: “She never got out of the third grade. She sold her body” (excerpts taken from a psychiatric opinion). It is observed in both extracts that an identity construction of Maria dos Anjos is as someone devoid of intellectual capacity and as a woman of easy living. This last identity is discursively engendered repeated at other times another psychiatric opinion (from the beginning of her puberty, began attending the underworld prostitution: brothels, low-level nightclubs, etc.). The hospitalized Maria dos Anjos is characterized as violent temper, very aggressive (a person of violent temper and very aggressive, unethical and immoral: amoral and unethical), defective character (this is a person with bad character formed as evidenced by lies, violence, emotional coldness and premeditated malice), 436 NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL irritable and resentful (is angry with ease. She is a spiteful person), and institutional unwieldy (often had to be collected and remains much of his measure of security locked in her cell unlike other patients who remain in the yard all the time). There is a curiosity item on the forensic psychiatric considerations. Initially, the author of the text informed the patient in her various admissions always received the diagnosis of psychopathic personality, but after scratching this latest information on the diagnosis (ever received a diagnosis of psychopathic personality) and adds that Maria dos Anjos has no psychotic symptoms. Following the findings, the author once again erased the information on Maria dos Anjos suffering from psychopathic personality, and through a general statement, which appeals to a supposed essence of crazy criminal nature of subjects of similar actions, regardless of the social aspects that are inserted (these patients with psychopathic personalities—information erased—in all parts of the world is that they do not usually get improvements in psychiatric hospital environment), opines that the women’s prison, and not the forensic hospital, is the institution that may offer her better chance of recovery. Over the concluding section, we also note the slippage between the categories crazy and criminal. If, on the one hand, they do not usually get improvements in psychiatric hospital environment, discursive construction of identity that evokes the setting of hospital patients custody and treatment (usually psychotic), the criminal side is revealed to indicate the type of institution that better fits to these subjects, the prison: when placed in harsh prison regime, with very few perks and intimidation when they commit criminal acts. The conclusion ends with the central argument that seems to favor the welfare of Maria dos Anjos: We suggest that she should be transferred to a women’s prison where, we believe, could have a better chance of recovery. The narratives about Maria dos Anjos are always crossed by the episode of delivery of the child for adoption, featuring another aspect of violence within her family and traversed by total institutions. According to the report which includes an official letter of the director of the maternity, addressed to the Judge, that interned constantly passes the institution, and her behavior narrated as extremely aggressive which we can observe in various sections of the report below, either in the form of adjectives or actions that are attributed to her: (1) “we hereby report to you some episodes of despair that has been caused by Maria dos Anjos over more than nine months (...) we have not had peace (...) Maria dos Anjos only caused horror and horrible moments”; (2) “untimely attitudes, violent, aggressive, causing injuries... depredating facilities... set fire in a consulting room... it is common to show up carrying a knife, razor blades, broken glass, fork, etc., came unexpectedly and violently in the emergency room, assaulted a nurse, handing her the razor in the face, causing deep cut” (official letter of the director of Pro Matre to the judge); (3) “very nervous, invading the maternity, shouting her son’s name... was very agitated... always attends causing uproar, claiming that her son is in our nursery” (Pro Matre maternity social case summary); and (4) “on the street, under the influence of alcohol and marijuana (sic), became very aggressive. She was admitted in Pedro II Hospital and there killed, during a fight, with a stick, another patient in a cold and calculated way (...) without psychotic symptomatology” (Note: Clinic, Roberto Medeiros Penal Hospital). In the documents, we find the story of institutional violence and aggression contained in Maria dos Anjos during her various passages and insertions in Pro Matre. Now, her narratives are from interviews conducted by a researcher of the team, explaining the experience of not knowing the whereabouts of her son and her expectation in meeting him again: (1) “I went straight from the psychiatry to take the baby”; (2) “I was not in conditions to be with my baby, I returned to psychiatry full of stitches. Then when I was released, I was seeking, they had donated. Then, I got and cut the doctor’s face and broke the director’s car. Then, I ended up here”; and NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL 437 (3) “At the clinic, I did not go back there. Only after, every time I go there, comes out a mess, I come up here ... because I take my baby which is in the nursery okay, you know”? Through narrative, Maria dos Anjos presenting her in order to play the roles of mother, mentally ill and insanecriminal, sometimes explaining and highlighting agencies harmful actions on another punishable, sometimes mitigating the agency, and designing performance role of mental patient. Thus, we see a constant game of impressions which alternate both roles. The presentification of the scene observed by the present tense of the verb will go, come out, and call adverbial phrases every time, which suggests that the narrator exerts a compression in time, evoking the indefinite repetition of the scene. It is as if the traumatic scene was frozen, and the passage of time in no way contributes to the development of loss. The pain of losing her son, which occurred in 1984, yet is narrated with great emotional charge at various times. Through this feature, we can infer that there was a freeze of a scene that was repeated several times, according to several reports and documents attest, it occurred more than two decades ago. The narrative analysis allows us to observe the nuances of identity configurations of Maria dos Anjos, which evokes a socially constructed system of values in the category insanecriminal (Farias, 2010), but not restricted to it. Thus, it provides us tools to build a memory that does not cover the essence of subjects from a supposed nature of insanecriminal, but a memory that is attentive to the implications of the recent institutional movements. Final Considerations Considering the guidelines of forensic psychopathology, we can say that once admitted, the insanecriminal has initially two possible destinations: (1) be treated by his mental disorder, and, after treatment; and (2) be evaluated by the expert that testifies the cessation of danger, allowing the judge, therefore, the suspension of a security measure, follows this the return of their activities in the context of social relations. However, the judge can determine their stay in the institution due to the chronic nature of his mental state. Given the new mental health policies guided by the axis of deinstitutionalization (Hirdes, 2012), as mentioned in the introduction, the insanecriminal will undergo treatment in institutions not total, with the support of the community, seeking their psychosocial rehabilitation, constituting, thus a third alternative that emerges in the current scenario, despite the lack of devices of similar nature in the country. So, three questions become pressing: What is the future of these institutions face the new hybrid nature determinations in favor of deinstitutionalization? What is the future of former hospitalized without social bonds in the context of the network of mental health in the city of Rio de Janeiro, in which devices currently offer only 35% coverage for the population as a whole? What will be the position of the legal apparatus on those who commit a crime because of a mental disorder and are thus considered unimputable? Given the imminent transformation of how the insanecriminal or adults with a mental disorder in conflict with the law are treated in Brazil. The initiative to build the social memory of the Heitor Carrilho Hospital is significant the extent that; on the one hand, we passed a moment of transition in engendering public policies for this population, on the other hand, it represents a way to observe the guidelines that will drive the change in social perception and look on this subject. Given the specificity of this institution and the nature of insanecriminal, this study adopts an unpublished approach to discuss the issue of social memory to the extent that aims to go beyond the assessment of the documentary aspects, historical, political, and ideological that shaped and still shapes. To this end, considering the methodological presuppositions, we aim to understand the institution’s memory based on ethnographic observations of communicative practices that constitute the routine 438 NARRATIVES AND EXPERIENCES, SOCIAL MEMORY, HEITOR CARRILHO HOSPITAL of the hospital/prison and narratives listed by its members—hospitalized, team management, prison guards, experts, and mental health professionals. We also treat insanecriminal as a category in ethnomethodological perspective based on the experiences of the subjects about to commit a crime and live in such an institution. References Carrara, S. (1998). Crime and madness. Rio de Janeiro: Eduerj. Carrara, S. (2010). The forgotten history: Asylums judiciary in Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Human Growth and Development, 20(I), 2021-2032. Dodebei, V. (2000). Space mythical imagery and social memory. In I. Thiesen, & J. Gondar (Eds.), Memory and space. Rio de Janeiro: 7 Letras. Dodebei, V. (2005). 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(2012). Paths of social memory in hospital custody and treatment Heitor Carrilho: A philosophical investigation. Psychoanalysis and Baroque in Review, 10(1), 632-651. Riessman, C. K. (2010). Narrative methods for the human sciences. New York: Sage. Tannen, D., & Wallat, C. (2002). Framings interactive and knowledge in interaction schemes: Examples of an examination/medical. In B. T. Ribeiro, & P. M. Garcez (Eds.), Interactional sociolinguistics. Rio de Janeiro: Parábola. Zizek, S. (1998). Violence between fiction and fantasy. In Freudian. Barcelona: Paidos. D US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 June 2013, Vol. 3, No. 6, 439-446 DAVID PUBLISHING An Islamic Perspective on the Role of Education in Responding to Social Issues Among Students in Malaysia Nik Rosila Nik Yaacob Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia In meeting its economic, social, and political goals, Malaysia and many other countries are challenged with the rise of social problems among their citizens. Being an Islamic country, the question of the role of religion in shaping good behavior has been an issue of concern. In spite of religion, education is seen as a significant instrument to tackle this social issue. The aim of this article is to highlight an Islamic perspective on the role of education in responding to social issues among students. This paper begins with philosophical discussion on the purpose and the meaning of education. Further discussion is on the three aspects inherent to the concept of education, i.e., the man, the content, and the method, is explained. To conclude, several suggestions are recommended to strengthen the existing educational system in Malaysia. Keywords: concept of education, social issues, knowledge, Islamic education Introduction The emergence of science and technology has positive and negative effect. The positive effect, such as innovation in science and technology, has transformed human beings into a better life and has accelerated their activities and productivities. Nevertheless, the negative effects of modern life are rapidly accelerating. The rapid development and innovation of technology has exerted a great influence upon the pattern of human interaction, and has resulted in the changes of interpersonal and intergroup relations. Technology has connected people more closely, yet technology also has brought into the traditional culture a new wave of other cultures, which has somehow impacted the values. As a result, individuals have been very busy with their own matters and they no longer pay much care and concern about other people. This is as reflective as what has happened in the community when a “single collective religious identity” seems to fragment due to the development of communication (Ameli, 2002) and also decline in religious values, tradition, and belief (Patrick & Joseph, 2007; Sergio, 2003; Malaysian Ministry of Education, 2004). This has reflected the various potential ways leading to youth behavioral problems. Azhar and Nasir (2010) held the behavioral problem of modern youth is mainly because human identities and characteristic are converted into machines of consumption, feeding the desires of our bodies, but always to the detriment of the true desires of our souls, which has led us to a “moral and spiritual void”, resulting in a state of human disequilibrium. Though the emergence of science and technology is not opposed to Islam, its conception that void of religion is contradicted with Islamic worldview (Malik, 2000). In Islam, religion is a way of life that educates man to be good. Therefore, education is indeed pivotal. Education aims at modification of human behavior in the light of Islamic virtues. Nik Rosila Nik Yaacob, Ph.D., School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia. 440 ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLE OF EDUCATION The Concept of Education in Islam The concept of education in Islam can be divided into its purpose and its meaning. In general, the purpose of education is to serve only to God (Abdullah, 1989)1. As God is divined and he loves all the goodness, man should be good too. On this point, many Muslim scholars (Hadi, 1979; Al-Attas, 1991) referred man as “the image of God” (vicegerent of God), because he partaked the transcendence of God. In this respect, man is being created to comprehend all the qualities of God. Therefore, the main aim of education in Islam is to produce a good man. The description of good man can be categorized into two dimensions. The first dimension is about the relationship between man and his creator, and the second is his relationship with others. The good man in the first dimension is the one who is sincerely conscious of his responsibilities towards the true God, recognizes the power and the unity of God, and creates God-consciousness in his soul (Hadi, 1979; Bidmos, 1994; Al-Taftazani, 1986; Al-Attas, 1991). In practical, he is the one who fulfills the essential elements in Islam, such as five times daily prayer, fasting during the “ramadhan” and pilgrimage in Mecca and also observe the regulations of Islamic rules in all their actions. In spite of fulfilling his responsibilities to himself, man is obliged to maintain friendly relationship with other creatures with justice (Bidmos, 1984; Al-Taftazani, 1986). This is the second dimension of good man. God likes man who respects the dignity of his brother and always invites others to goodness (Abdullah, 1989)2. The second purpose of education in Islam is to harmonize between the good (divine) and the bad (evil) qualities in the human soul. The main aim of harmonizing these two elements is to ensure a balance development of the body, the mind, and the soul of individual (Bidmos, 1984; Hassan, 1983). Al-Attas described a good man is when he constantly strives to improve every aspect of his inner self towards perfection as a man of “adab” (good manner) (Wan Mohd Nor, 1998). In relation, there are three different potentialities governed the human soul which represent the good and the bad qualities. The first potential is “nafs al-ammarah”, the root of all blameworthy qualities (evil). If this blameworthy quality is stronger and more powerful than the divine (good) elements, human soul will be subservient to evil and follow the lust, which will affect his behavior and action. On the other hand, if the divine (good) elements are stronger and highly conscious of God, they will be able to instruct the evil soul to submit to the goodness. Thus, all the blameworthy qualities are substituted with goodness, and tranquility will finally exist in the human soul. This potentiality is called nafs al-mutamainnah. The third potentiality is nafs al-lawwamah, which is midway between the evil potentiality of nafs al-ammmarah and the good elements. This soul is always unconscious except when it is illuminated by the light of the goodness and later on becomes conscious (Al-Ghazali, 1998a). In this situation, self-discipline and spiritual training are significant in disciplining the soul to the goodness. The second aspect in the concept of education in Islam is its meaning, which referres to the terminological and philosophical point of view. According to Al-Attas (Wan Mohd Nor, 1998), the meaning of education in its totality is inherent in the connotations term “tarbiyyah”, “ta’lim”, and “ta’dib” taken altogether. Though all terms refer to education, ta’dib is more accurate and precise in interpreting the concept of education. Ta’lim means to instruct, to teach, to train, to school, and to educate3, which contains elements of knowledge and 1 God says, “I have only created Jinns and men, that they may serve Me. No sustenance do I require of them, not do I require that they should feed Me” (Surah al-Dhariyat, 51:56-57). 2 See Surah Al-Imran, 3:104. 3 Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic Edition. J. Milton Cowan, 3rd printing (Beirut: Librairie Du Liban), 1980, 636 (Hereafter, as cited in a dictionary). ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLE OF EDUCATION 441 schooling. Tarbiyyah means to nurture, to bear, to feed, to foster, to nourish, to cause to increase growth, to rear, and to bring forth to mature produce (Al-Attas, 1991). However, tarbiyyah is not adequate to convey the meaning of education from its terminological point of view. This is because its meaning is not only applied to man, but also to other species such as animal, minerals, and plants (Al-Attas, 1991). The focus of tarbiyyah is more on physical and emotional aspect of man. Therefore, ta’dib (root word: “addaba”) which means to refine, to educate, to discipline, to punish, and to chastise (Wehr, 1980), is more appropriate to denote education, as its meaning conveys the process of educating man intellectually, spiritually, and socially. Moreover, its meaning is already, including tarbiyyah, ta’lim, and also knowledge or the content 4 (Al-Taftazani, 1986; Bidmos, 1984).The word ta’dib is also used by the prophet (pbuh) when he says, “My Lord educated (addaba) me, and made my education (ta’dib) most excellent” (Al-Ghazali, 1998a) Based on this hadith, the fun damental element inherent in the concept of education in Islam is to inculcate adab to individual. Hence, what is the meaning of adab and how it relates to education? Adab in its original sense means invitation to a banquet which implies the idea of a good and honorable social intercourse. In this case, adab is about disciplining the mind and soul. It is also about acquisition of good qualities and attributes of the mind and soul, so that individual can differentiate between: good and bad; right and wrong; and true and false (Al-Attas, 1979). In conclusion, ta’dib according to Al-Attas is referred to a process of instilling something into human beings and inculcation of adab in man. Three elements inherent in the concept of ta’dib, i.e., the method or education (refers to “a process of instilling”), a content (refers to “something”), and recipient (refers to “human beings”) (Al-Attas, 1991). The discussion of these elements is as follows: The Man Man is constituted of the body and the soul. The body and the soul are very closely interrelated. Nevertheless, the real essence that gears the physical body to function is the soul. Man is also known as a rational being. The rational or “aql” distinguished man from other beings. The real nature of aql is that it is a spiritual substances by which the rational soul recognizes and distinguishes truth from falsehood (Al-Ghazali, 1998a; Al-Attas, 1991). Rationality in man refers to the capacity for understanding speech, and the power responsible for the formulation of meanings (which involves judgment, discrimination, distinction, and clarification), and articulation of expressions in meaningful pattern (Al-Attas, 1991). In relation, the development of human intellect depends upon the internal and external senses. There are five external senses in the developmental order of sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch, respectively. The function of the external senses is to perceive objects or things in the external world. On the other hand, there are also five internal senses. These internal senses perceived internally the sensual images and their meanings, combined or separated them, conceived notions of them, preserved the conceptions, hence conceived and formed intellection of them. Unlike the external senses, these internal senses do not have specific sense organs, but they are naturally intellectual and connected with the physical intermediaries. Their function is localized in the anterior, posterior, and middle regions of the brain (Al-Attas, 1991; Muhammad, 1992). The Content The content refers to knowledge (“ilm”). As human soul from the very beginning has been equipped with the knowledge of God, seeking knowledge is an important attributes of man. Because of knowledge, teaching 4 Concept of Education, 26. 442 ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLE OF EDUCATION and learning becomes meaningful and reasonable. Knowledge from modern conception is something that can be proven by human reason and known in the scientific and empirical investigation (Feibleman, 1999). It is something that can be experienced by man and can be grasped by human reason. However, in Islam, all the invisible aspects, such as values and religion are part of knowledge. Therefore, knowledge from Islamic point of view is “the arrival in the soul of the meaning of a thing”. The “meaning of a thing” is the right meaning of it obtained from the Holy Qur’an (Al-Attas, 1991). Knowledge is divided into “fard ‘ayn” and “fard kifayah”. The former is referred to the knowledge of Oneness of God (tawhid) which also encompasses the fundamental principles in religion. This kind of knowledge can be acquired by man through his acts of worship and devotion. His worship to God depends on God’s grace and his own latent spiritual power and capacity created by God to receive it (Al-Ghazali, 1998b; Al-Attas, 1978). Man receives this knowledge by direct insight or spiritual savoring (dhawq) and unveiling to his spiritual vision (kashf). This knowledge is referring to the highest knowledge (“makrifah”). It is considered as the highest knowledge, because it gives insight into knowledge of God or the knowledge of the truth (Al-Attas, 1995). Hence, it is obligatory (fard’ayn) to every Muslim man and woman to learn it. The second is the knowledge which is obligatory to some Muslims only. It can be divided into religious (shar’iyyah) and non-religious (ghayr syar’iyyah). The religious sciences are derived from the Prophets (pbuh), while the non-religious sciences are acquired through reasoning and experimentation. This kind of knowledge which can be acquired through intellectual and bodily faculties in man is discursive and deductive (Al-Ghazali, 1998b; Al-Attas, 1978). Knowledge is unlimited. However, man’s nature, capacity, lifespan, and needs are limited. He, hence, needs to limit his personal acquisition of knowledge. It is neither desirable nor possible for an individual to acquire all the sciences. However, the Muslim community should organize its educational system, so that all the sciences and also the religious virtues can be studied and applied as well as can be expanded all over the world (Wan Mohd Nor, 1998). For this reason, this kind of knowledge is obligatory upon only some individuals in the community (fard kifayah). Nevertheless, this category of knowledge should be guided by the former one, which is the true knowledge. The Method Educational process is related to disciplining the physical and spiritual aspects of an individual which involves in acquisition of knowledge and transformation of his personality. When knowledge is transferred to man, not only the mind-set changes, but also the behavior and character are affected. The thinking ability will respond to an affective domain and results to the way of doing things (Sidek, 2009). This process entails spiritual struggle (“mujahadah”) and discipline (“riyadah”). These two activities will lead towards purification of the soul and refinement of character (“tahdhib al-akhlaq”). In educating young children, self-discipline is indeed important. Self-discipline means a training to inculcate good traits in the soul through simple and continuous practice and finally with intense struggle until good action is manifested (Al-Ghazali, 1995; Al-Miskawayh, 1968). Since the faculty of desire is the first to appear in childhood period, disciplining the child at this stage is aimed at preserving the balance and moderate between the excess and deficiency of his faculty. Thus, the child especially at the discernment age should be supervised carefully. The first trait to be controlled is the greed for food (Al-Ghazali, 1995). In disciplinary process, punishment is inevitable. Mild physical punishment will be imposed as soon as the child reaches seven years of age, particularly in the case of leaving his daily prayers. The intention of ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLE OF EDUCATION 443 punishment is to accustom a child to his religious duty (Al-Ghazali, 1995; Al-Miskawayh, 1968). Formal education for young children is started when he/she approaches seven years old, whereby his discernment faculty is emerging. At this phase, the teachers or tutors are given full authority to supervise the child in terms of his action and his conduct as well as to teach him knowledge. The teacher will be more concerned with the child’s cognitive development through instruction and transmission of knowledge, while the parents will get involved in its practical application. The parents will take a responsibility to ensure that their child will consistently perform the five fundamental rituals in Islam (Al-Ghazali, 1995). Learning, according to Al-Ghazali (1995), is a process of recollecting our own identity. He referred to the soul in the situation when it was struggling to get rid from the evil domination and deviant from God. When the faculty of reason has been successful in subjugating the soul and brings it back to the truth, it is actually the process of recollecting its identity (Muhammad, 1978). Therefore, the acquisition of knowledge indeed begins with inner purification, whereby the child needs to be taught to purify his soul from vices and blameworthy qualities which is doomed inside the evil tendency. Socialization is another method in educating young children by associating with a right companion. Parental authority at this stage is crucially important in determining the peer group for their child to mingle with. He should be prevented from playmates or peers who could influence him in contrary to what has been taught by his parents, from those who talk nonsense, who curse and insult others; and from mixing with children who are accustomed to luxurious and comfort life (Al-Ghazali, 1995; Al-Miskawayh, 1968). As the process of learning during childhood period is developed through perception and imagination, a child inclines to imitate what he perceives and listen as well as imitate their heroes and heroines from the Medias. In this case, good examples from parents, teachers, and other authorities in community are ultimately important. Likewise, electronic Medias, such as television, Internet, and radios should play their social role in promoting valuable programs and inculcating good values for the young children. Therefore, Al-Ghazali (1995) and Al-Miskawayhy (1968) reminded parents not to allow their children to listen to the amusement that could stimulate his desire, such as poem which deals with lover and passion. This is because it would implant the seeds of corruption in their heart. On the other hand, listening to the melodious recital of the Qur’an which contains of beautiful words and wisdom are good to strengthening the soul and inculcating good character trait of the children. The Role of Education in Islam vs. Malaysian Educational System Education in this modern world not only gives students a sound intellectual, but also must respond to and satisfy their social, emotional, and spiritual needs. Malaysian educational system today, especially the designation of the curriculum focuses on the cognitive aspect of the learner and to develop the capable human resource for the industries. Thus, the acquisition of knowledge is about having a good result in examination and employs a good job in the future. This situation has caused a deficiency in inner purification and emotional stability, which is the main aim in education (Hadi, 1979). The emphasis on cognitive or rational dimension solely is inadequate, because intelligent is not resided in the human brain. Muslim philosophers, such as Al-Ghazali (1998a) and Ibn Sina (Muhammad, 1992), held intelligent is resided in the heart. Their argumentation is based on several verses (Abdullah, 1989)5, which implied the potentiality of human intellect in the heart. To improve human heart is by learning and understanding wholeheartedly his “curriculum”, which 5 Surah Qaf, 50:37; Surah al-Munafiqun, 63:3; Surah al-Naml, 27:46. 444 ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLE OF EDUCATION is the Holy Qur’an. As God is the creator of the universe, he has designed a very appropriate curriculum to all mankind which embedded in the Qur’an. It is mentioned in the Qur’an that God taught Adam all the names of the things then presented it to the angels (Abdullah, 1989)6. Therefore, his curriculum (the Qur’an) should be the first subject to be taught and the Sunnah of his messenger as a second subject. The content of the Qur’an encompasses all aspects of human life: the knowledge of sciences and universe; the history of the past and other civilization; the knowledge of mathematics and jurisprudence; the psychology of human beings, and so forth (Abdullah, 1989). The Sunnah is the tradition of the Prophet is regarded as the second source of knowledge in Islam. It encompasses the saying of the Prophet, his action, his silent, and his approval of the actions of others. Its function is to explain and interpret some of the ambiguous verses or command in the Qur’an, such as the way to perform prayer (salat) or the way to perform pilgrimage. Qur’an has been the main subject in traditional education. For example, in traditional Malay education, Qu’ran has been taught to the children at very early age. The children will stay with their religious teacher for a certain period or years to study the sciences of Qur’an, Arabic language, and also the essential of Islam until they graduated. As part of their informal training, the children were trained to be independent and habituated with interpersonal skills training, such as cooking and laundry (Abdullah, 1970). The current Malaysian educational system should emphasize religious sciences, which is fundamental and “fard ‘ayn” (obligatory). The religious science encompasses the studying of Holy Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the jurisprudence, theology, Islamic metaphysics, and linguistic sciences should be inculcate at every level: primary, secondary, and pre-university and university level. Its content and scope should be designed in gradations as befitting each level (Al-Attas, 1991). This rudimentary knowledge is crucial for our young generation in responding to modern and post-modern challenges. Though it might be difficult for some young Muslims to mastery these subjects, but not so to acquire a rudimentary knowledge of these traditions (Seyyed, 1993).The second focus is on fard kifayah (acquired knowledge). It encompasses the human sciences, the natural sciences, the applied sciences, and technology sciences. The teaching of these subjects must be imbued with Islamic elements and key concepts. Besides these subjects, new disciplines must be added, such as comparative religion from the Islamic perspective, western cultures and civilization, linguistic sciences, and Islamic history. These new disciplines will ensure logical continuity and cohesion in the successive educational progression from religious sciences to the rational, intellectual, and philosophical sciences and “vise-versa” (Seyyed, 1993). Amongst the main aim of education as drawn by ministry of education in Malaysia is to produce person with a balanced growth spiritual, intellectual, emotional, and bodily senses. To achieve this target, individual should love knowledge. Love of knowledge means an effort to seek knowledge not only through reading but also through discussing, researching, debating, or observation. The importance of knowledge has been emphasized clearly in the holy Qur’an (Abdullah, 1989)7, when God urged men to read and to seek knowledge. It is reported that knowledge has played an important role in the emergence of the great civilization in the past, such as Islam and the Greek (Wan Mohd Nor, 2003). The effort of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his companion in disseminating the knowledge of Islam all over the world is much appreciated when they have successfully changed and transformed the people from ignorance to the truth (Ahmad, 1983). Therefore, love of 6 7 Surah Baqarah, 2:29. Surah Al-Iqra’, 96:1-4. ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ROLE OF EDUCATION 445 knowledge should be inculcated at a very young age through reading habit. Prior to that, it should be infused in the curriculum too, so that it can be discussed comprehensively. In the current Malaysian curriculum, love of knowledge has been integrated in the 16 values of the integrated curriculum for primary and secondary school. However, it is insufficient to explain the whole conception of love of knowledge (Wan Mohd Nor, 2003) particularly on the fundamental virtue (ummahat al-akhlaq), i.e., wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice (Al-Miskawayh, 1968). From the fundamental virtue, emerged other virtues, such as compassion, self-reliance, moderation, respect, love, freedom, cleanliness, honesty, diligence, co-operation, rationality, public spiritedness, and good morals as existed in the current Malaysian curriculum. Yet, these virtues were not explained comprehensively especially from philosophical point of view (Sidek, 2009). In this case, teaching method should be multiplied. To enhance moral consciousness among students, their moral reasoning should be stimulated in teaching and learning, such as through moral reasoning activities (Pushphavalli, 2009). Since values can be divided into values of being (such as courage, honesty, and discipline) and values of giving (such as respect, love, and loyal), outdoor exercise which is social based is profoundly important (Linda & Eyre, 1993). The above discussion reveals Malaysian educational system is basically impersonal and teaching is just a profession rather than a vocation for developing knowledge or moral understanding. It is unfortunate that some of our teachers consider their professional function separate from any moral or ethical values. This perception contradicts with Islamic teachings that regard teachers as spiritual source as well as professional guidance. Thus, teacher’s training program should be revised. The correct understanding of the concept of knowledge and the importance of ethics should be properly taught in the training program. Likewise, love of knowledge should be part of teacher’s training program. Conclusions Education has always been a major agenda in child’s development program, as it can bring about social, emotional, and spiritual change towards better quality of life. The foregoing discussion is a humble attempt to clarify, according to Islamic, perspective the role of education in responding to social issues among students. By highlighting the concept of education in Islam, it is no doubt that education at every level in Malaysia should be revised and strengthened. Despite focusing on content and method, the correct understanding on the concept of knowledge and the teaching and learning approach should be improvised. Aside of teachers and school authority, parents play an important role in education. Since parents certainly know their children better, it is very beneficial if they can involve in their children’s education in particular monitoring their social life. References Abdullah, A. K. M. (1970). The Hikayat Abdullah (A. H. Hill, Trans.). 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The educational philosophy and practice of Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas: An exposition of the original concept of Islamization. Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC. Wan Mohd Nor, W. D. (2003). Knowledge culture: An explanation. Singapore: Pustaka National PTE LTD. Wehr, H. (1980). A dictionary of modern written Arabic. J. Milton Cowan (Ed., 3rd printed). Beirut: Librairie Du Liban. D US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 June 2013, Vol. 3, No. 6, 447-458 DAVID PUBLISHING The Development of Basic Competencies for Sustainability in Higher Education: An Educational Model Luis Amador Hidalgo, Juan Manuel Arjona Fuentes Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Córdoba, España Existing paradigms, which are deeply rooted in our educational systems, are fomenting unsustainable development. For this reason, it is necessary to opt for a style of education that allows university students to be aware of the need to live in a different way and be aware of our absolute dependency on our natural environment. This goal requires fundamental changes in the curriculum, as well as a broader vision of the role that educational institutions must play. One of the objectives of education in this new century must be to help achieve sustainable social and environmental human development. In this sense, higher education plays a very important role in the field of education for sustainability and the university must take on this challenge with great determination. This work presents a model for formation that furthers the development of basic competencies for sustainability, which must be incorporated into the curriculum of all higher educational studies. Keywords: higher education, sustainability, basic competencies, environmental competencies, university Introduction The XXI century poses a great challenge for mankind: the search for sustainability. This concept goes beyond the consideration of the environment on a global scale, since it also integrates such aspects as fairness and social justice. The degradation of all ecosystems, the loss in biodiversity, the depletion and destruction of natural resources, numerous instances of pollution, or the extreme poverty of millions of human beings all originate from how people think. Therefore, this should be first and foremost a problem of education, and linked to the content and process of formal education and higher education. Recognizing this requirement, in turn, an understanding of the problem of education itself, not only of the problems that exist in education (Ull, 2011). Existing paradigms, deeply rooted in our higher education systems, are helping to further unsustainable development (Tilbury, 2011). That is the reason why it is necessary to opt for a type of education that allows the university to instill in us the need to live in a different way, recognizing our absolute dependence on the natural environment. This requires fundamental changes in the curriculum, as well as a broader view of the role played by educational institutions. All university students have to be trained in skills regarding sustainability, if we are to have professionals who know how to deal with problems regarding unsustainability. They will have to contend with this type of dilemma in the future, so that their decisions do not contribute to further increasing unsustainability. Luis Amador Hidalgo, Ph.D., tenured teacher, Department of Economics, Universidad Loyola Andalucía. Juan Manuel Arjona Fuentes, Ph.D., statistics teacher, Department of Quantitative Methods, Universidad Loyola Andalucía. 448 DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION In academic circles dealing with sustainability, a broad debate is being encouraged to determine the basic skills that university graduates should have been acquired by the end of their formation (Wiek, Withycombe, Redman, & Banas, 2011). Despite some criticism (Hyland, 2003), there is a certain consensus in educational literature on the importance of clarifying key skills and learning outcomes when it comes to the design of academic programs (Burke, 1989; Spady, 1994; Bowden & Marton, 1998; Voorhees, 2001; Baartman, Bastiaens, Kirschner, & van der Vleuten, 2007). According to Wiek (2012), these skills are an explicit framework for developing distinct and recognizable profiles in a field of training that also represent an explicit frame of reference for the development of programs and academic courses; the assessment of progress in learning, and efficient teaching methods; and finally the elaboration of a suitable training profile for students to help them carry out their professional activity in the future and resolve problems, act as agents of change and adequately manage transition processes (Orr, 2002; Rowe, 2007; Loorbach & Rotmans, 2006; McArthur & Sachs, 2009; Willard et al., 2010). This paper presents a training model that enables the development of core competencies for sustainability which should be incorporated into the curriculum of all plans of study. A New Assignment of Functions for Higher Education: Now Is the Time for Sustainability Higher education is called upon to exercise leadership in the achievement of sustainable development, in a context where many educational institutions are currently helping to trigger the crisis of sustainability on a global scale. During the first half of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014), various approaches have been applied in order to make sustainable development, a transversal axis within the field of higher education. In most cases, these have been more or less systematic attempts to integrate sustainability into teaching and learning (Barth, Rieckmann, & Sanusi, 2011). From a broader perspective, integrated action towards institutional sustainability would have to consider actions in different contexts in participation, management, training, and research1. Their effective integration in higher education institutions depends on a series of factors that belong to three different areas (Aznar & Ull, 2009): (1) The macroscopic level. It refers to initiatives at international, national, regional, and local levels. This field involves political and administrative issues; fundamental factors are institutional support and the development of educational policies aimed at promoting education for sustainable development, which involves basic guidelines and a support structure of personnel and materials (coordinators, resources, tools, etc.) and supporting the design and development of plans for institutional sustainability; (2) The microscopic level. It is based on actions developed in the center or faculty aimed at designing new university degrees and determining the skills that must be developed, including those for sustainability. This level refers fundamentally to the institution as an instigator, and center policy; (3) The strategic level. With respect to teaching, refers to the involvement of teaching staff in the design and application of actions related to the integration of sustainability into curriculum profiles. A key issue in this regard is the training of faculty members to include sustainability criteria in their respective disciplines (Aznar, 1 This is exactly how it is expressed in the Commitment for Sustainability Practices in Institutions of Higher Education on the occasion of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. Consult in this regard the initiative of Higher Education for Sustainability in Río + 20: http://www.uncsd2012.org/index.php?page=view&nr=341&type=12&menu=35. DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 449 Martinez-Agut, Palacios, Piñero, & Ull, 2011). University centers have to integrate sustainable development in the context of both education and research. As regards the former, education for sustainable development is not only another item to add to an overloaded curriculum, but also a path that leads to a different perspective about the curriculum itself, pedagogy, organizational change regarding policy, and especially, ethics (Barth & Timm, 2011). Clearly, much of the learning, concepts, and techniques used to form students in their different degrees are related to sustainability. For some time, different universities have used different procedures aimed at their own sustainability: the creation of degrees in environmental science or environmental engineering, offering doctoral programs in these fields, etc.. In other cases, it has been a question of incorporating an environmental variable in training cycles and lines of both basic and applied research that are not directly concerned with sustainable development, but are related to it in some way. On the other hand, in cases where the plans of study had no connection with this paradigm, the students involved have in some way been able to get access to some basic formation in sustainability by taking some specific course on this subject. However, if the idea is to generalize all areas of knowledge to achieve the objectives in formation referred to in the introductory section, important changes would have to be made in the curriculum (Orr, 2010; Ull, Martínez-Agut, Aznar, & Piñero, 2010), and also there would have to be a broader participation in the role played by university education institutions. The integration of sustainability in higher education can be considered as an innovation that requires some reorientation in both learning and teaching as well as the reformulation of traditional issues and of conventional approaches which are proposed for adoption in this text (Barth, Michelsen, & Sanusi, 2011), since there is evidence that suggests that the area of higher education does not really understand the true nature of the challenge that humanity is facing (Cotton & Winter, 2010; Abdul-Wahab, Abdulraheem, & Hutchinson, 2003; Ferreira & Tilbury, 2012; Cortese, 2003; Thomas, 2004; Moore, 2005; Nomura & Abe, 2011; Park, 2008; Verbitskaya, Nosova, & Rodina, 2002). Curricular sustainability includes revising categories through which we interpret society, science, technology, economy, territory, education, etc. and reorienting them towards sustainability (Barth & Godemann, 2007). It is necessary to change the focus through which we study reality to resolve the social and environmental problems that we have generated. According to Barrón, Navarrete, & Ferrer-Balas (2010), curricular sustainability involves not only including environmental content in the syllabus of different subjects, but also another broader series of changes in the conception and design of the educational process, keeping in mind certain aspects like those specified as follows2: (1) Replacing the static and fragmented view of reality with a complex and dynamic vision capable of overcoming the tradition of breaking down reality into unconnected parts, while opening up the university more to the collaboration of societies and social organizations to resolve socio-environmental problems; (2) Enhancing disciplinary flexibility and permeability to encourage systematic and relational thinking through the incorporation of interdisciplinary work projects from different areas and subjects; (3) Improved functionality and contextuality in teaching, incorporating the study and treatment of local and global issues, and strengthening partnerships with local entities; (4) Promoting coherence between theoretical discourse and action, between the theoretical and the practical, the programming of practice sessions coherent with theoretical proposals, and trying to make the management of the center be also coherent with the process of sustainable development itself; 2 Adaptation of the methodological proposal for orientation on sustainability in higher education studies in on the ACES Network (Curricular Ambientalización de los Estudios Superiores). ACES Network: Red ACES. 450 DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION (5) Adoption of a constructivist epistemology and a holistic education that explicitly recognize the diversity in students, cognitive styles, cultures, situations, etc., accepting the role of individuals and groups as active subjects in the history and construction of their own knowledge; and promoting as an integral formation of educators in their intellectual, psychomotor, affective, social, and moral aspects. Higher education is then finally a key instrument for reaching sustainable development, which means that the university should form professionals capable of using their skills and knowledge, not only in a scientific context, but also to provide an answer for social and environmental needs. The professionals that the university forms will have to (Ull, Martínez Agut, Aznar, & Piñero, 2010): (1) understand the contribution of their work in different professional, cultural, political, and social contexts and their influence in promoting a greater awareness of the considerations of sustainable development; (2) work in multidisciplinary teams, to find solutions for the demands made by socio-environmental problems, including proposals for professional alternatives to contribute to sustained development; (3) apply a holistic and systematic approach for solving professional problems; (4) actively participate in the discussion, definition, and evaluation of policies and actions, both in the public and private domains, to contribute to redirecting society towards more sustainable development; (5) apply professional knowledge according to ethical principles of conduct and ethical values related to sustainability; (6) understand the contribution of their work in different professional, cultural, political, and social contexts and their influence in promoting a greater awareness of sustainable development. Basic Competencies for Promoting Sustainability in University Education Social changes, the development of new technologies that lead to the availability of a rapid and growing information flow, cultural diversity, globalization trends occurring in today’s society and the need to cope with constantly increasing complexity and uncertainty all present new challenges that require the acquisition of skills for their management (Aznar & Ull, 2009). In general, the term “competency” is determining a qualitative change in the way we understand human learning: The development of skills makes possible an expansion and deepening of the very concept of learning, since meditating on it acquires a whole new systematic and holistic dimension; it implies, ultimately, a new concept in comprehensive professional training. In the field of university education, sustained development could be considered as a reference point in the process of selecting key competencies (Rieckmann, 2007). Nonetheless, educational literature deals with competencies in general and with competencies referring to sustainability matters in particular, and its terminology becomes very ambiguous, since “competencies” are associated with skills, capacities, qualification, and other terms (Baartman, Bastiaens, Kirschner, & van der Vleuten, 2007). In the last few years, various articles and reports have managed to make some progress in the conceptualization of the key competencies related to sustainability (Byrne, 2000; de Haan, 2006; Barth, Godemann, Rieckmann, & Stoltenberg, 2007; Sipos, Battisti, & Grimm, 2008; Segalas, Ferrer-Balas, Svanstrom, Lundqvist, & Mulder, 2009; Willard et al., 2010). However, the identification of what constitutes competencies in the area of sustainability is still but in its infancy. A review of the literature on sustainability in education, carried out by Wiek, Withycombe, and Redman (2011), reveals a certain convergence in key competencies in sustainability research and the resolution of problems, but also concludes that specific key competencies that are essential for the design of programmes DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 451 and education are not sufficiently justified and developed (Wiek, Withycombe, Redman, & Banas, 2011). By the same token, there are still very few cases where curriculum change has been successfully integrated on a large scale (de la Harpe & Thomas, 2009), a fact which is due in great part to the lack of research on the evaluation of competencies in the field of higher education. This article defines competency as a set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are functionally related, and that allow tasks and problem-solving to be executed satisfactorily (Spady, 1994; Baartman, Bastiaens, Kirschner, & van der Vleuten, 2007). Applied to sustainability-related skills, competency represents a complex and integrated set of knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, and values that people bring into play in different contexts (society, education, labor, and family) to address situations involving environmental issues, as well as to act upon and transform reality according to sustainability criteria (Dale & Newman, 2005; Geli, Junyent, & Sánchez, 2004; Rowe, 2007; Barth, Rieckmann, & Sanusi, 2011). It is the art of knowledge, knowing what to do and how to evaluate, which requires working with content related to the environment (nature and socioeconomic and cultural aspects), which enables professionals to give sustainable responses to problems or situations that they have to face. What competencies in sustainability must university graduates possess to meet current and future demands of society? Determining what these demands are can help to assess the degree of preparation achieved by graduates to meet the challenges of sustainability and the promotion of sustainable development, as an objective of systems of education (Cortés et al., 2010). Different approaches have been proposed to undertake the selection of key competencies for sustainability (Rieckmann, 2011): shaping competences (de Haan, 2006), sustainability literacy (Parkin, Johnson, Buckland, & White, 2004), sustainability skills (Hopkins & McKeown, 2002; Stibbe, 2009), professional competences for sustainable development (Martens, Roorda, & Cörvers, 2010), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development definition and selection of competencies of key competencies (Rychen & Salganik, 2001; 2003), and core competencies (Wiek, 2010). A proposal for education about sustainability must incorporate the promotion of three basic types of competencies: cognitive, methodological, and attitudinal. They are considered to be basic competencies for three main reasons: (1) for the way in which they serve as a point of reference to achieve the final objectives set for university education; (2) because their acquisition is transversal, as they are facilitated from different academic areas and at different moments of evolution; and (3) for how they require the learning of new contents (conceptual, procedural, and attitudinal) through the implementation of various active methodologies to be applied in different contexts. The training model for basic competencies in sustainability that is described in continuation presents a set of competencies that are integrated conceptually and inter-related. This model has been obtained, on the one hand, from the results of surveys completed by university teachers to establish minimum contents based on a previous definition of the objectives of sustainability in formation, and the specification of the core competencies that have to be developed3; and on the other hand, through a study of related research in different contexts (Junyent, Geli, & Arbat, 2003; Rychen & Salganik, 2003; Barth, Godemann, Rieckmann, & Stoltenberg, 2007). The model is organized around three categories (Aznar, 2006): Cognitive competencies (knowledge) include critical understanding of global, national, and local 3 This model is found in the results of the research work “Curricular Environmentalism in the University of Valencia” financed through public concourse, directed by Pilar Aznar with the collaboration of Mª Ángeles Ull and which concluded in 2007. See Aznar M. P. (2006). 452 DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION socio-environmental issues. The subjects that make up each university degrees can lead to developing competencies in their courses by using, in a specific context, the underlying concepts in socio-environmental issues, and the analysis of causes and effects as well as their incidence in the sustainability of development. Critical understanding of the socio-environmental issue requires: (1) The ability to perceive what is global through local action (trans-cultural comprehension); (2) The ability to reflect objectively on the models of individual behavior and cultural patterns existing in society; (3) The use in context of underlying environmental concepts in environmental issues; (4) The ability to detect cause/effect relationships in environmental issues; knowledge about the historical origins of current environmental concerns; (5) The ability to integrate various environmental dimensions (social, cultural, economic, political, aesthetic, physical, and biological) when making professional decisions; (6) The ability to apply actions related to the environment transversely through decisions taken in professional circles; (7) The ability to analyze differing theories about development and its link to models of real development; (8) The ability to critically analyze the information and data broadcast by the media about environmental issues; (9) The ability to distinguish between different forms of social and political organization and their influence on the resolution of environmental problems; (10) Knowledge about international, national, and local initiatives to protect and improve the natural and social environment. Methodological competencies (skills) include acquisition of skills, strategies, techniques, and procedures for decision-making and taking actions related to sustainability. Various teaching guides would have to contemplate contents and activities students should learn to be able: to elaborate and apply indicators for problems related to environmentally sustainable human development; to design action plans that include educational actions to promote sustainability values, the creation or modification of attitudes that develop them and the permanent up-dating of behaviors that apply them; to interact in interdisciplinary fashion to resolve environmental problems related to the professional-academic setting; to participate in managing the environment of the local community as well as knowing how to transversely apply actions resulting from professional decisions affecting nature and the social environment. This section will consider the following basic skills: (1) The ability to take environmentally-related ethical decisions and to rationalize and justify possible solutions; (2) The ability to design action plans to improve any process-product relationship from an environmental point of view; (3) The ability to interact in an interdisciplinary way when resolving environmental issues that are related to the academic and professional worlds; (4) The ability to develop and apply indicators for environmental problems; (5) The ability to carry out/collaborate in conducting environmental audits. Attitudinal competencies (knowing how to act and evaluate) implicit in the very definition of sustainable development are the moral conception and ethical attitudes which encourage new behaviors and values DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 453 coherent with sustainability; they imply the evolution of a new type of ethic that encompasses different spheres of human interaction in society, with institutions and with the whole group of biotic and abiotic systems (Jonás, 1995). All these interactions lead to a new three-dimensional ethic: (1) One which places first and foremost individual rights affects relations between human beings (the first generation of rights); (2) One where the values defining social rights are what affect relationships between human beings (second generation of rights); and (3) One which emphasizes environmental values, peace, and the development of peoples (the third generation of rights) involves the relationships between human beings, all other living things and even inanimate objects. This change in perspective affecting the ethical framework would imply that, through the syllabuses for different subjects, actions could be contemplated to develop the ability to relate values/behaviors through knowledge about the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the relationship between people and their environment; the ability to recognize the ethical models that drive decision-making related to sustainable development; the ability to recognize one’s own beliefs, values, and attitudes toward issues related to sustainability; the ability for empathy, compassion, and solidarity within and between generations (Espunya & Juandó, 2011); the capacity to take a stand on environmental and ethical dilemmas and justify possible solutions; the capacity for self-motivation in favor of behavior coherent with values of sustainability; the ability to develop personal ethics with respect to sustainability; the ability to foresee the consequences of decisions to be taken (forward-thinking); and the ability to develop a sense of responsibility with respect to the consequences of one’s own actions. In this section, the competencies that should be incorporated are: (1) Knowledge about the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the relationships between people and their environment (capacity to relate values—behaviors); (2) The ability to recognize the models of environmental ethics that drive decision-making and the implementation of measures related to the environment; (3) Building a personal environmental ethic based on sensitivity towards the natural and socio-cultural environment; (4) The ability to recognize one’s own beliefs, values, and attitudes with respect to environmental issues; (5) The acquisition of a sense of accountability for the consequences of one’s own decisions and actions. The change in approach involving new considerations based on sustainability requires a modification of traditional axiological models that have been based on relationships between humans and their social and natural environment where the repercussions of human actions on the environment are not considered ethically significant. Hence, the inclusion of core competencies contributed to sustainability cannot merely refer to cognitive and methodological aspects while ignoring ethical considerations. Incorporating sustainability in course profiles is a strategy that tends to facilitate the achievement of those educational objectives referring to the promotion of basic skills for sustainability in university graduates. This is possible due to the reformulation of subject contents, which must be worked on through disciplinary dialogue and from the consideration of specific criteria based on ethics, equity, multiculturalism, etc., to guide the progress of the whole process fomenting sustainable development. In this sense, some research has been published which fixes criteria frameworks as proposals to guide the development of core skills in all degrees (Geli, Junyent, & Sánchez, 2004; Barth, Godemann, Rieckmann, & Stoltenberg, 2007). Conducting a synthetic analysis of the different proposals has led us to introduce the following basic criteria (Aznar & Ull, 2009): 454 DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION (1) Interdisciplinary criterion. University teaching has to be oriented towards interdisciplinary ends; the faculty consists of professors and researchers from different academic areas who provide diverse academic and cultural approaches to facilitate the development of interdisciplinary dialogue from the logic of their various disciplines; (2) Criteria mainstreaming. The content aimed at developing competencies for sustainability must be integrated in different academic areas in the different subjects included in the degree and must pass through the different levels of university management; (3) Criterion of university and society, academia and workplace. University degrees have to meet the challenges raised by existing institutions in the area, like that of preparing competent professionals to live up to the demands of their work responsibilities when dealing with sustainability; (4) Criterion of complexity. Today’s changing and complex reality demands an ability to deal with complex situations, to act after reflection and make coherent and fair decisions through the principles of complex thinking4 (dialectical, contradiction, order/disorder, recursive, and homogramatic); (5) Criterion of scientific and ethical development. This involves the ability to take on responsibilities that contribute new knowledge, strategies, and attitudes to the culture of sustainability in the field of higher education; (6) Criterion of policy guidance in educational formation. Since the learning processes are based on the achievement of competences, the achievement of key competencies for sustainability requires a regulatory framework to justify the selection of skills to be developed; (7) Criterion of socially oriented learning. Learning for sustainable development must be linked to real-life situations; (8) Global criterion for actions to be taken. The contents in curriculum profiles under elaboration must be based on global referents when dealing with local and contextual issues; (9) Criterion of integrating formal and informal learning experiences. The university is an environment that offers opportunities for informal learning: through the generation of debates and dialogue, the promotion of voluntary activities, the development of tacit styles of learning through the internalization of values, attitudes, behaviors, skills, etc., during daily life in the university community. Conclusions Fortunately, there is evidence of more and more companies who are taking both social/environmental ethics into consideration, as well as the technical training of university students, as essential elements in the recruiting of graduates. Achieving a sustainable future requires that individuals adopt different values, attitudes, skills, habits, and behaviors that are often learned and grounded at an early age. Unfortunately, current educational efforts are not sufficient to achieve enough of a transformation in these areas. One of the aims of education in this new century must be to contribute to environmentally and socially sustainable human development. In this sense, higher education plays a very important role in the field of education for sustainability, and the university must take up this challenge with determination. Education for sustainability is an ongoing process of cultural production, aimed at training professionals committed to attaining the best possible relationship between society and the environment for the survival of 4 Reference to complex thought necessarily implies consulting the concepts of Edgar Morín (Morin & Pakman, 1995). DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 455 both, taking into account the principles set out in ethical models coherent with environmentally and socially sustainable development, such as justice, solidarity, equity, or the respect for both biological and cultural diversity. Universities must take the lead in the development of new forms of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary education that is ethically oriented for proposing solutions for problems related to sustainable development. Through the formation of students, research, the promoting of critical consciousness, etc., they take on unprecedented responsibility in the history of higher education for the dissemination of knowledge, values, attitudes, and behaviors aligned with sustainable human development, which is meant to inspire decisions made by graduates in the exercise of their respective professional activities. In essence, the curriculum must enable students to be aware of the values that should guide their future professional career activity and their collaboration in tackling global challenges. Through curricular profiles, the aim is to achieve overall formation for the student, not from fragmenting the curriculum into disjointed sections, but through the implementation of environmental criteria and contents from all the areas that comprise it and at all levels of education. In this sense, it is necessary to establish a framework to facilitate the involvement of the whole university community in the launching of an institutional process that contributes to sustainable development on a world-wide scale. The specification of key competencies for sustainability, and their incorporation in a set of general or basic competencies, is a requirement for the elaboration of new university studies curricula. All students in this area should be formed in their fields of specialization in accord with criteria and values related to sustainable development. Thus, they will have to acquire a centered understanding of what sustainability is, so that in the future they can take this perspective into consideration and incorporate it into their professional activities. To achieve this, certain objectives should be met. Among them, some that could be highlighted are: (1) The strengthening of environmental competencies in professionals trained and educated in the university. That is why the work methodology considered relevant is the introduction of sustainability based on formation that is oriented toward learning competencies, which is understood as the set of complex and integrated procedures, knowledge, attitudes, and values that individuals bring into play in different contexts in which they interact to resolve environmental issues through sustainability criteria. In this sense, education with respect to sustainability should include basic skills training in these areas: (a) Cognitive: The cognitive competencies related to knowledge and linked to a critical understanding of global and local environmental issues; (b) Methodological: The methodological skills related to know-how, the acquisition of skills, strategies, techniques, and procedures for decision-making and action-taking related to the environment and sustainable development; (c) Attitude: attitudinal skills related to know-how and evaluating, where the development of sustainability attitudes and values are essential. (2) Promoting incentives in teaching and research that contribute to the transformation of relationships between society and the environment, and promote the prevention and resolution of issues that lead to unsustainability; (3) Improving interaction between the social demand for sustainability experts in any field and the formation of university students; (4) The development of flexible curriculum models that facilitate a holistic perspective of sustainable 456 DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC COMPETENCIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION environmental and social human development; (5) The strengthening of the role of universities and the demonstration of their ability to teach those values, behaviours and life styles necessary to achieve sustainability. In this new approach, with respect to the mission of the university institution, there has to be a revamping of those old values that have led to the global crisis on this planet, and actions have to be based on an ethical consideration that makes evolution possible, leaving behind a culture and lifestyles that have been proved unsustainable while moving forward to other alternatives that make the quality of life compatible with sustainable development. The university is not only a place for formation. It is also a place where new educational proposals can be experimented with, and a platform for spreading changes in perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors towards new more sustainable lifestyles. 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The government in Taiwan has invested a lot of budget in elder education, but in practice, there are two independent and diversified elder education systems in Taiwan, which had led to a lack of resource integration, in turn, causing duplicity in investment and wastage. The aim of this study is to explore some suitable strategies for resource integration by investigating the organization and implementation of elder education in Taichung. From the results of this study, a total of 23 strategies for the resource integration of elder educational organizations were identified, including mutual support of manpower and material resources, certification of teaching staff, conducting joint classes and setting up a shared Website, and so on. These strategies could be grouped based on the five categories of resources: human, financial, material, knowledge and technical, and marketing. Keywords: resource, resource integration, cooperation, elder education Introduction The issue of aging population is a global one, with its effects extending from the end of the 20th century to the 21st century, and Taiwan is no exception. This phenomenon is mainly caused by some reasons, including declining birth rates, advancing in medical technologies, and increasing life span in human populations. As the proportion of population aged 65 exceeds 7%, Taiwan has entered into “aging society” (Wei, 2008). Accordingly, our government has responded to the elder’s needs to hold many learning activities. It mainly comes from two different government system—social welfare department and education department (Yang, 2008). In Taichung, about 10 different types of organizations undertake the provision of elder education, including the city and county governments, township offices, public and private schools, colleges and universities, farmers’ associations, community associations, senior citizens’ clubs, foundations and churches. The nature of these various organizations is diverse and each has its own distinguishing features. As of December 2012, there are 24 Evergreen Academies and 16 SCLCs (Senior Citizens’ Learning Centers) in Taichung. Despite of limited resources, government funding still had to be divided into social welfare and education systems, leading to dispersed resource. Furthermore, there was a lack of communication and coordination, and an absence of an integration mechanism between the two systems. Consequently, the same types of educational Chi Hu Tien, Ph.D., dean of General Affairs, Department of Cultural Development, Hung Kuang University. Wen Chi Tsai, Ph.D., adjunct associate professor, General Education Center, Meiho University. 460 RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS services were often provided within the same area, causing wastage of resources. The aims of the various elder educational institutions, whether set up under the social welfare or education systems, were essentially the same: Provision of educational and learning services to the elderly. There was actually a very high degree of similarity in terms of the course contents provided by the various institutions, making resource integration necessary. Considering the limited resources available for elder education in the first place, the needless operational overlaps inhibited these resources from generating their full benefits, and also led to much wastage. As a result, the purpose of this study is to explore resource integration strategies by interviewing operators and practitioners in elder educational organizations. Also, the findings will provide better insight and understanding of the issues faced by elder educational organizations over resource integration, and could serve as a reference to various government departments during future attempts at resource integration of these organizations. Literature Review Definition of Resource Wu (1994) assimilated the views of several scholars and grouped resources into two main categories: assets and abilities (see Figure 1). Assets refer to the stock of elements, both material and non-material that an organization owns or is able to control. Abilities are the means by which resources can be built up and allocated, and can be further divided into those belonging to the organization or the individual. Figure 1. Classification of resources. Source: Wu (2000, p. 128). From the reviewing literature, it was found that resources can be categorized into seven types: human, material, information, marketing, public relations, performance appraisal, and digital technology (hardware and software). Some researchers in the education field further classified resources as human, material, finance and information, etc., with information resources generally referring to all intangible assets (Zhou, 2009). On the other hand, Wei (2007) highlighted the 5Ps related to marketing resources: product, price, promotion, place, RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS 461 and people. These 5Ps correspond with the five main topics in elder education: courses, fees, publicity, venue, and professional staff. Other intangible assets, such as organizational culture, trademark, reputation, etc., can all be grouped under marketing resources. Therefore, this study tends to see marketing resources as a separate category and integrate with other researcher’s view to form the following classification of resources (see Table 1). This classification would serve as the foundation for further discussion on organizational resource integration strategies. Table 1 Classification of Resources Category 1 2 3 4 5 Level 1.1 Professional manpower 1.2 Professional competence 2.1 Fund raised internally 2.2 External funds 3.1 Facility 3.2 Space 4.1 Intellectual property 4.2 Database 5.1 Product 5.2 Price 5.3 Place 5.4 Promotion 5.5 People Human Financial Material Knowledge and technical Marketing Item for integration 1.1.1 Organization leaders 1.1.2 Professional administrators 1.1.3 Teaching staff 1.1.4 Volunteers 1.2.1 Organization leaders 1.2.2 Professional administrators 1.2.3 Teaching staff 1.2.4 Volunteers 2.1.1 Income from course fees 2.1.2 Income from organized activities 2.1.3 Other incomes (donations, fund, raising, etc.) 2.2.1 Government grants 2.2.2 Supplementary grants from other government units 3.1.1 Teaching facilities 3.1.2 Office equipment 3.2.1 Course venues 3.2.2 Activity venues 4.1.1 Planning of programs 4.1.2 Professional knowledge and guidance 4.1.3 System of learning and information channels 4.2.1 Database of learners 4.2.2 Database of courses 5.1.1 Courses 5.1.2 Activities 5.2.1 Course fees 5.2.2 Method of payment 5.3.1 Venue of classes 5.4.1 Enrolment 5.4.2 Advertisements 5.4.3 Publicity 5.4.4 Gifts 5.5.1 Teachers 5.5.2 Other staff Note. Source: Compiled by the authors. Theories on Resource Integration RDT (Resource Dependency Theory) perspective. The RDT has three basic assumptions: (1) The success of an organization depends on the maximization of its market network; (2) The source of an organization’s power is based on its acquisition of resources to minimize uncertainties within the organization; and (3) When an organization reduces its dependency on external resources and controls more resources, it will 462 RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS become less constrained by the market. Following these assumptions, an organization will strive to ensure that its supply of resources will not become scarce, and to reduce its level of dependency on its environment for resources. Its decision-makers will also propose a proper operational strategy, which is used to manage the level of resource dependency on other organizations and to enhance the power and status of their own organization (Qiu, 2000). Social exchange perspective. This theory analyzes the structure of, and interactions between reward and cost, the result of which can be used to explain basic social behavior. It postulates that a person’s current behavior is affected by a similar behavior in the past and the available means to obtain a reward (Lin, 2008). Blau (1986) believed that social interactions exist within a social group and that people are attracted to a certain organization because of the potential personal rewards that can be reaped from that organization. Hence, once a connection is made, each party will provide their respective intrinsic rewards (e.g., emotions, respect, love, etc.) and extrinsic rewards (e.g., money, physical strength, labor, etc.), to be used to maintain and further strengthen the connection. Figure 2. Levels of cooperation. Source: Wu (2000, p. 242). Transaction cost perspective. Cost refers to the highest price that is inevitable, while price is the value that one is prepared to pay in exchange for something (Zhang, 2002). This theory was proposed by economics Nobel Prize winner Ronald H. Coase. To him, the theory investigates the issue of coordination between consumers and producers in the decision-making process (Wu, 2011). When discussing this theory, mention is often made of Williamson’s discourse on the promotion of development. The main point is that an organization’s decision to “manufacture” or “purchase” a needed resource is usually based on the consideration to reduce its transaction cost when interacting with other organizations (Shen, 2000). Cooperation and alliance perspective. Buckley and Casson (1988) defined cooperation as “coordination RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS 463 affected through mutual forbearance”. Coordination refers to the mutual sharing and allocation of resources, which is conducive to each other’s development, leading to a win-win outcome. Qiu (1998) pointed out that a strategic alliance is a partnership created when different organizations jointly invest in resources and merge a specific value chain of their business units, in order to achieve a specific goal and to establish competitive advantage. Wu (2000) categorized the types of cooperation into nine levels, with relationships ranging from distant to intimate (see Figure 2). Methodology Interviews were chosen as a method to investigate and explore issues related to resource integration for 38 informants including practitioners of elder education in Taichung and officials from related government agencies. Informants were invited to share their personal experiences and opinions through guided and standardized open-ended interviews, which led to the identification of new dimensions that helped to develop and concretize the issues (Patton, 1990). Interview questions were drawn from literature related to the study, with an aim of obtaining a more in-depth understanding of the resources available for elder education and observing and analyzing informants’ ideas and thoughts on the issue. The data gathered from the interviews were transcribed verbatim onto a computer. Interview data supplemented the information from documents published by the various elder educational organizations in Taichung, including enrollment brochures, posters, meetings, annual reports, and press releases. Results Based on the literature review conducted, resources were categorized into five main types: human, financial, material, knowledge and technical, and marketing. The data obtained from the interviews and the integration strategies suggested by the informants were sorted based on these categories, and the results are as follows. Human Resources Human resources can be sub-divided into two levels: professional manpower (quantity) and professional competence (capabilities). The items for integration include organization leaders, professional administrators, teaching staff, and volunteers. The organization leaders are the soul behind the operation of the entire organization. The leaders’ knowledge, background, attitude, and social network have a strong impact on the general direction of the organization’s work. Based on the data from the interviews, the integration of organization leadership could be achieved either through appointment by the government or self-appointment. For example, Informant A2, who preferred government appointment, stated: “There can be regular rotation of elder education organization leaders, with the posting assignments made by the government department in charge” (Informant A2-9-3). Informant A12, who preferred self-appointment, stated: “After the merger, staff of the new organization can vote internally before the new organization leader is appointed” (Informant A12-12-4). In terms of integrating professional competence, one suggestion was for the government authorities to appoint specialists. According to Informant A8, “The government authorities can appoint specialists to guide the organization leader, making it mandatory for the organization’s operations to be carried out based on the government’s directives” (Informant A8-11-1). The suggested strategies relating to the integration of the two 464 RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS levels of human resources are listed in Table 2. Table 2 Resource Integration Strategy—Human Resources (Category 1) Level 1.1 1.2 Item for integration Professional manpower Professional competence 1.1.1 Organization leaders 1.1.2 Professional administrators 1.1.3 Teaching staff 1.1.4 Volunteers 1.2.1 Organization leaders 1.2.2 Professional administrators 1.2.3 Teaching staff 1.2.4 Volunteers Suggested integration strategies a Appointed by the government b Self-appointed a Joint appointment b Mutual support a Mutual support b Joint appointment a Mutual support b Joint formation of a volunteer corps a Specialists to provide guidance a Seminars b Joint formation of book clubs a Joint training of teaching staff b Certification of teaching staff a Joint training b Expansion of services Note. Source: Compiled by the authors. Financial Resources Financial resources can be sub-divided into funds raised internally and externally. The former includes income from course fees and organized activities, donations and fund raising, etc.. The latter includes government grants and supplementary grants from other government units. During the interviews, it was suggested that the income from course fees be integrated through the joint organization of courses. As stated by Informant C1: “Work together to organize courses and set up methods and procedures to manage the fees and expenses for the joint courses” (Informant C1-10-2). Informant A2 added: Standardize the issuance of funding, have a designated organization to manage the funds (like a school), then let the original undertaking agency continue its own development. Its success or failure can be left to market mechanisms. (Informant A2-10-2) For financial resources, the suggested strategies related to the different levels and items for integration are listed in Table 3. Material Resources Material resources can be grouped according to facilities and spaces. The former includes teaching facilities and office equipment, while the latter includes venues for courses and activities. According to the informants, resource integration for teaching facilities could be carried out through three methods: (1) mutual loaning of equipment; (2) opening up of facilities for use by others; and (3) common usage of facilities. For example, Informant C9 suggested: “Formulate a policy and method for the mutual loaning of teaching equipment” (Informant C9-12-2). While Informant D1 stated: “After the merger, everyone can have common use of all the teaching equipment” (Informant D1-12-5). RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS 465 Table 3 Resource Integration Strategy—Financial Resources (Category 2) Level Item for integration 2.1.1 Income from course fees Fund raised internally 2.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 Income from organized activities Other incomes (donations, fund raising, etc.) 2.2.1 Suggested integration strategies a Joint organization of courses a Joint organization of activities a Combined fund raising a All funds to be managed by an appointed school All funds to be managed by an administrative department in the MOE (Ministry of Education) Funds to be used to subsidize research and development and to standardize curriculum design Funds to be exclusively managed by a commissioned trust b Government grants External grant 2.2 c d 2.2.2 Supplementary grants from a other government units Seek sponsorship for activities Note. Source: Compiled by the authors. The integration of office equipment could be achieved through mutual loans or mergers, as proposed by Informant D5: “Formulate a policy and method for the mutual loaning of office equipment… there can also be a merger to form a single office” (Informant D5-10-2). The suggested strategies related to the two levels of this category of resources are listed in Table 4. Table 4 Resource Integration Strategy—Material Resources (Category 3) Level Item for integration 3.1.1 3.1 Facility 3.1.2 3.2.1 3.2 Teaching facilities Office equipment Course venues Space 3.2.2 Activity venues Suggested integration strategies a Mutual loaning of equipment b Opening up of facilities for use by others c Common usage of facilities a Mutual loaning of equipment b Merger a Mutual loaning of venues b Assigned by the competent authority c Open up venues for use by others a Mutual loaning of venues b Assigned by the competent authority c Open up venues for use by others Note. Source: Compiled by the authors. Knowledge and Technical Resources Knowledge and technical resources can be grouped into two levels: intellectual property and database. The former focuses on the planning of programs, professional knowledge and guidance, and system of learning and information channels. The latter focuses on the databases of learners and courses. To summarize the information collected during the interview, the informants suggested the joint planning of programs. For example, Informant G5 stated: “Share with one another the survey findings on the educational needs of senior citizens, and jointly plan the contents of elder education” (Informant G5-2-2). 466 RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS Informant D1 further suggested: “Jointly invite organizations or foundations with expert knowledge in elder education to research and develop programs, then guide frontline and operations staff to conduct these programs” (Informant D1-12-8). Informant C3 added: “Set up a platform managed by the school for the sharing and exchange of practical experiences. Learning points can be circulated via directives” (Informant C3-11-2). The suggested strategies relating to knowledge and technical resources are listed in Table 5. Table 5 Resource Integration Strategy—Knowledge and Technical Resources (Category 4) Level Item for integration Suggested integration strategies a 4.1.1 4.1 Intellectual property Planning of programs 4.1.2 Professional knowledge and guidance 4.1.3 System of learning and information channels 4.2.1 Database of learners 4.2 Database 4.2.2 Database of courses Joint planning of programs b Joint research and development c Establish an exchange platform a Joint appointment of counselors a Joint development of system b Shared system a Joint development of database b Sharing of information c Shared database a Joint development of database b Sharing of information c Shared database Note. Source: Compiled by the author. Marketing Resources This category of resources contains five levels: product (courses and activities), price (course fees and method of payment), place (venue of classes), promotion (enrolment, advertisements, publicity, and gifts), and people (teachers and other staff). In summary, for courses and activities, suggestions for integration included the exchange of course details, as proposed by Informant D1: “Exchange information on courses that have been developed, plan courses systematically to avoid duplication” (Informant D1-12-10). Informant C10 further suggested: “Jointly conduct some of the courses” (Informant C10-11-2). On the topic of a common platform, Informant F2 suggested: “Establish a common online platform to provide information on course details and a system for online registration” (Informant F2-8-1). Informant C5 commented on the fees and payment method: “Jointly organize a few special courses and activities, preferably charging the same fee, or allow senior citizens to pay the course fees at either side” (Informant C5-11-4). Informant F2 further added: “Set up an online payment system, and have everyone collect fees via this network system” (Informant F2-8-1). The suggested strategies related to the different levels and items for integration under this category of resources are listed in Table 6. To summarize the results above, combine those similar suggestions and we got 23 resources integration strategies as shown in Table 7. RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS 467 Table 6 Resource Integration Strategy—Marketing Resources (Category 5) Level Item for integration 5.1 Product 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.2 Price 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.3 Place 5.3.1 5.4 Promotion 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.5 People 5.5.1 5.5.2 Suggested integration strategies a Exchange of course details Courses b Conduct joint classes Activities c Set up a shared Website a Joint charges Course fees b Standardized fees Method of payment c Establish an online payment system a Sharing of community spaces Venue of classes b Joint enrolment c Online registration a Joint printing of enrolment brochures b Standardized publicity Enrolment c Joint enrolment activities Advertisements Publicity d Online network Gifts e Joint offering of gifts f Standardized production of gifts a Create a platform for sharing of personnel-related information Teachers Other staff b Publication of specialized journals Note. Source: Compiled by the authors. Table 7 Resources Integration Strategies in Summary Category 1 2 Level Professional manpower 1.2 Professional competence 2.1 Fund raised internally 2.2 External funds 3.1 3.2 Facility Space 4.1 Intellectual property 4.2 Database 5.1 Product 5.2 Price 5.3 Place 5.4 Promotion 5.5 People Human Financial 3 Material 4 Knowledge and Technical 5 1.1 Marketing Note. Source: Compiled by the authors. Strategies for integration 1.1.1 Organization leaders appointed by the government 1.1.2 Professionals joint appointment 1.1.3 Mutual support 1.2.1 Professionals joint training 1.2.2 Certification of teaching staff 2.1.1 Joint classes 2.1.2 Combined fund raising 2.2.1 All funds to be managed by an appointed organization 2.2.2 Funds to be exclusively managed by a commissioned trust 3.1.1 Mutual loaning of equipment 3.2.1 Mutual loaning of venues 4.1.1 Joint planning of programs 4.1.2 Establish an exchange platform 4.1.3 Joint appointment of counselors 4.2.1 Joint development of database 5.1.1 Conduct joint classes 5.1.2 Set up a shared Website 5.2.1 Standardized fees 5.2.2 Establish an online payment system 5.3.1 Set up a shared online registration 5.4.1 Joint printing of enrolment brochures 5.4.2 Joint offering of gifts 5.5.1 Publication of specialized journals 468 RESOURCE INTEGRATION STRATEGIES FOR ELDER EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS Many informants from the elder educational organizations clearly expressed their unwillingness to have any form of integration with other organizations, or expressed that it was not necessary to do so. From the perspective of transaction cost theory, an elder educational organization would not have the intention to integrate unless the inevitable price (i.e., the cost of forming an alliance or cooperation with other organizations) was lower than its income. Only under this scenario would it be possible for resource integration to succeed. This study found that many elder educational organizations simply refused to integrate with others, because it would be difficult to forecast potential income after integration. Sometimes, the issue was not even about income: If an organization was confident of achieving its goal to obtain the largest amount of grant, it would not matter even if integration were to result in a higher number of learners because that would not translate to additional income. Hence, there was no motivation to seek integration with others. However, research finding shows that existing elder educational organizations paid relatively less attention to the category of marketing resources. Based on observations, this could possibly be due to the existing system and supplementary regulations on elder education. Currently, the operational target of elder educational organizations receiving government grants is not to strive to enroll the most number of senior citizens. Rather, they aim to enroll just the right number of learners based on the qualification standard and budget set for a basic government grant in order to obtain the largest grant amount. On the other hand, organizations that did not rely on government grants to survive, such as the Xiaoming and Songbai Evergreen Colleges, often strived to enroll the maximum number of learners possible to achieve survivability and profitability. Consequently, the number of actual classes held and learners enrolled by these organizations far exceeded that of most organizations dependent on government funding. Conclusions According to above strategies for integration, four conclusions were derived as follows: (1) Using integration strategies to integrate the existing resources, including mutual support of manpower and material resources, certification of teaching staff, conduct joint classes and set up a shared website and so on. These could be helpful to implement elder education in the future; (2) Transaction cost was an important consideration affecting resource integration. Many informants clearly expressed their unwillingness to have any form of integration with other organizations, or expressed that it was not necessary to do so if the price is higher than income; (3) Professional leadership in elder education should be highly-valued. Many interview subjects did not believe that the government had the capabilities to carry out resource integration properly. Many of them expressed that if a unit were to be assigned to facilitate and carry out resource integration, the most appropriate organization would be a professional elder educational organization; (4) A competitive system would create the pressure for elder educational organizations to integrate. To ensure survivability and profitability, the number of actual classes held and learners enrolled by organizations that did not rely on government funding far exceeded that of most organizations dependent on government funding. Accordingly, a system must be created that allows for free competition and increase enrolment and participation rates. 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X. (2009). Resource integration model for community adult education—Using the construction of Kaohsiung Citizen University as case study (Unpublished doctorate dissertation, National Kaohsiung Normal University). (in Chinese) D US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 June 2013, Vol. 3, No. 6, 470-479 DAVID PUBLISHING Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes Towards Inclusion Education and Comparison of Self-compassion Levels Aydan Aydin Seher Kuzu Marmara University, İstanbul, Türkiye İstanbul, Türkiye This study has been figured for the purpose of comparing attitudes of teacher candidates’ toward inclusion education in terms of several variables and self-compassion levels. Sampling of the study consists of Grade 4 students of (547) Marmara University Atatürk, Faculty of Education and Faculty of Science and Letters. In this study, a personnel information questionnaire is used to collect the demographic data of the participants. Also, to measure participants’ attitudes towards inclusion “Attitudes” toward Mainstreaming Scale is used. Besides, to measure self-compassion levels, a SCS (Self-compassion Scale) developed by Neff (2003a) and adopted to Turkish by U. Akın, A. Akın, and Abacı (2007) is used. Self-compassion levels were at medium levels. It has been found that self-compassion total scores and sub-dimension scores affected attitudes towards to inclusion education. Keywords: teacher candidates, attitudes toward inclusion, self-compassion Introduction People’s adaptation to the environment in which they live in or their exhibitions of the expected behaviors from them are possible with education. The education given to the children first comes from families and environments and then schools. However, the expected behaviors from individuals can have different or similar qualities and an education process which considers the differences and similarities, providing them to keep pace with the developing and changing world is needed (Ersoy & Avcı, 2001). General education services are inadequate for the individuals whose behavioral differences are distinct, and therefore special education services are necessary for them (MEB (Ministry of National Education), 2010). Special education is the type of education given to the children who cannot or partly benefit from the normal education, by teachers who are trained in this area, using special programs and materials in the special education settings (Baykoç, 1992). Special education not only can be performed in special classes and schools, but it also includes handicapped children with appropriate qualities to have education with their peers. The arrangements which are required for handicapped children and normally developing children to have education together, is provided by mainstreaming education. The benefits of mainstreaming education are considered to be closely related to the teachers’ attitudes and sensitivity toward mainstreaming. Today, it is accepted that in education, developing a positive attitude towards the field and learning is as important as teaching that field or subject (Doğan, 2004). There are several factors making mainstreaming education to be successfully held. Teacher’s attitude is one of these factors. In principal, although there is no Aydan Aydin, assistant professor, Atatürk Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Marmara University. Seher Kuzu, Special Education Teacher. TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION 471 great difference between general and special education in planning and implementing education programs, many teachers who will take part in general education classes, graduate without adequate background about special education (Kargın, 2004). For a teacher to prepare environments that facilitates interaction between children with and without disabilities, to teach methods of communication with each other, to model them and to get others to be noticed about handicapped child’s qualifications, first of all her/his attitudes and thoughts should be positive (Sucuoğlu & Kargın, 2006). The presence of attitudes requires the development of emotions, beliefs, and thoughts towards facts, events, and individuals beforehand. Facts, events, and individuals are responded in a particular way by means of emotions, thoughts, and beliefs, or so called attitudes towards entities, individuals, events, and thoughts (Özyürek, 2006). In other words, attitudes can be defined as individual’s possible form of expected behavior to be put on towards a situation, an event or a fact (İnceoğlu, 2010). Due to its subject and nature, the area of special education can be considered as not only an area of information, but also an area of compassion (Soyer, 2010). It is possible to think that a teacher of intellectually disabled has to show a higher level of compassion about empathy, forming emotional relationships, and understanding other than those of other fields. While compassion feeds from the teacher’s professional knowledge, technical competency and ethical understanding, it also considered to be directly related to teacher’s psychological well being, level of self-awareness and considerate attitudes. Teacher’s well being is a notion which should be advanced in order to increase compassion. Self-compassion helps people to be in balance during difficult experiences and reminds that pities are common for everyone in life, and also teaches the healing effect of self-understanding and to be patient (Hollis-Walker & Collosimo, 2011). Self-compassion can be both counted as an element of teacher’s well-being and a premise of sensitive and compassionate approach, which is professionally required. Recent researches showed that the individual’s level of self-compassion who works in the social study fields is effective in coping with the professional difficulties (Ying, 2009). The aim of this research is to determine the attitudes of teacher candidates from various fields towards mainstreaming education and whether the level of self compassion has any effect on the development of these attitudes. In the research also, whether the teacher candidates’ taking or not taking special education and mainstreaming courses and the condition of having or not having handicapped relatives effects the total scores of ATMS (Attitudes Toward Mainstreaming Scale) and SCS (Self-compassion Scale) will be investigated as well. Method Research Model This research uses relational screening model study which aims to investigate the relationship between teacher candidates’ attitudes toward mainstreaming and their level of self compassion. Relational screening model is a research model aiming to detect the existence and/or level of covariance between two or more variables. Sample Students in the Marmara University, Ataturk Faculty of Education are included in the study with the consideration of participant accessibility. Students in Department of Classroom Teacher of Mentally Handicapped (29 students), Department of Science Teaching (33 students), Department of Literature Teaching 472 TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION (29 students), Department of Math Teaching (29 students), Department of English Teaching (85 students), Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance (34 students), Department of Geography Teaching (36 students), Department of Pre-school Teaching (71 students), Department of Computer Teaching (58 students), Department of Classroom Teaching (76 students), Department of Music Teaching (46 students), and Department of Chemistry Teaching (21 students) with a total of 547 teacher candidates are participated in the study. Data Collection Tools In order to get demographic information of participants, individual information form was used, and in order to assess attitudes toward mainstreaming, ATMS (Attitudes Toward Mainstreaming Scale) were also used, whereas SCS was used to assess self-compassion. Individual Information Form. An individual information form developed by the researcher was used to collect teacher candidates’ demographic information. ATMS. Developed by Berryman and Neal (1980) and adapted to Turkish by Atay (1995), the scale’s Cronbach Alpha validity was found to be 0.86 in reliability and validity study. The scale is Likert type and consists of 18 items. Validity studies support that the scale has the applicability in the studies assessing teacher attitudes towards mainstreaming and especially attitude change of non-handicapped individuals. SCS. Developed by Neff (2003a), the scale evaluates the sub-dimensions of self-compassion and relies on the self report of the individual (Soyer, 2010). The scale consists of 26 items and the confirmative factor analysis has confirmed the six sub-dimensions: self-kindness vs. self judgment, common humanity vs. isolation, and mindfulness vs. over-identification. SCS’s Turkish adaptation study was conducted by Akın et al. (2007) with 633 university students who had been studying in various departments of Faculty of Education at Sakarya University. In the confirmatory factor analysis, it was seen that the scale is compatible with the original form. Scale’s internal consistency coefficient was found between 0.72 and 0.80 and test re-test coefficient was found between 0.56 and 0.69. It was also found that Scale’s corrected item-total correlations aliened between 0.48 and 0.71 and all the differences between the 27% low-high group averages are significant. According to these findings, it can be concluded that the scale has proper validity and reliability. Data Collection Personal information form, ATMS and SCS were applied to 547 teacher candidates who had been studying at Marmara University, Ataturk Faculty of Education (Grade 4) and Science and Literature Faculty (Grades 4 and 5). Data collection tools were submitted to lecturers with the required information, and they are distributed by lecturers with informant consent to the students. Five hundred and fifty-two forms were delivered, and 547 of them were accepted to have valid data. Data Analysis and Discussion Statistical analysis of data was conducted with SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) 16 data analysis software. Frequency and percentage distributions describing the demographic characteristics of the teacher candidates who formed the research group was conducted, then scales’ and sub-scales’ participant number (N), arithmetic mean ( x ) and standard deviation (s) of scores were determined. One way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was conducted to determine if individual’s total scores for ATMS are varied accordingly to the level of self-compassion variable, Tamhane’s T2 test was used for to determine in which groups, the attitudes towards mainstreaming scores are varied accordingly to the level of self compassion variable. To TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION 473 determine if the SCS and ATMS are varied accordingly demographic variables, Kruskal Wallis-H Test and Independent sample t-test were used. Since there is no special technique to determine in which groups the differences occur, groups were compared by two with Mann Whitney-u Analysis. Pearson analysis was conducted to determine the correlations between total scores of ATMS and sub-scales of SCS. Results A shown in Table 1, sample group’s self-kindness sub-scale score have a mean of x = 15.68, standard deviation of 4.21; self-judgment subscale score have a mean of x = 12.82, standard deviation of 4.06; common humanity sub-scale score have a mean of x = 12.66, standard deviation of 3.01; isolation subscale score have a mean of 3.34, standard deviation of x = 10.65; mindfulness subscale score have a mean of x = 13.08 and standard deviation of 3.05; over-identification score have a mean of x = 10.76, standard deviation of 3.38 and total scores of the SCS have a mean of x = 75.65 and standard deviation of 10.40. Table 1 Descriptive Values of SCS Sub-dimensions Scores Groups Self-kindness Self-judgment Common humanity Isolation Mindfulness Over-identification Self-compassion total score N 547 547 547 547 547 547 547 x s 15.68 12.82 12.66 10.65 13.08 10.76 75.65 4.21 4.06 3.01 3.34 3.05 3.38 10.4 Table 2 Descriptive Values of Total Scores of ATMS Groups N x s Total score 547 62.92 9.91 Table 3 Frequency and Percentage Values for Self-compassion Levels Low Medium High Total f % %val. %cum. 89 423 35 547 16.3 77.3 6.4 100.0 16.3 77.3 6.4 100.0 16.3 93.6 100.0 As shown in Table 2, the participants’ total score of ATMS calculated as mean of x = 62.92 and standard deviation of 9.91. As shown in Table 3, the sample group was consisted of 89 individuals with (16.3%) low, 423 with (77.3%) moderate, and 35 with (6.4%) high levels of self-compassion. As Table 4 shows, ANOVA was conduct in order to determine if the participants’ total scores of attitude towards mainstreaming scale is varied with self-compassion level. The analysis revealed a significant difference between the groups’ means (F = 3.86 p < 0.05). In order to determine which post-hoc multiple comparison method to use after ANOVA, Levene’s test was used to check if the distribution of variances are 474 TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION homogeneous. Since it appeared that variances are not homogeneous (LF = 3.38, p < 0.05), Tamhane’s T2 (Post Hoc Tests algorithms) multiple comparison technique was preferred which is used widely in these cases. Another reason for the preference of the Tamhane’s T2 test was its sensitivity to alpha-type error. Tamhane’s T2 multiple comparison analysis results are presented in Table 5. Table 4 Results of ANOVA to Identify If Scores of ATMS Varied According to Level of Self-compassion Descriptive values Score Group n x s Var. K. Total self-compassion Low Medium High Total 89 423 35 547 60.36 63.52 62.23 62.92 8.76 9.93 11.54 9.91 Btw. G Inside G. Total ANOVA results Sum of Mean df squares square 750.145 2 375.072 52,892.316 544 97.229 53,642.461 546 F Sig. 3.86 0.022 Table 5 Results of Tamhane’s T2 Test to Identify in Which Groups Scores of ATMS Varied According to Level of Self-compassion Level (i) Low Middle High Level (j) xi x j SD p Middle High Low High Low Middle -3.156 -1.869 3.156 1.287 1.869 -1.287 1.05 2.16 1.05 2.10 2.16 2.10 0.009 0.774 0.009 0.893 0.774 0.893 As Table 5 shows, results of the Tamhane’s T2 test revealed that the difference was significant at the middle group (p < 0.01). Other groups’ mean differences was not found to be significantly different (p > 0.05). Table 6 Results of Pearson Analysis for Determining Correlations Between ATMS and SCS Sub-dimensions Scores Self-compassion sub-dimensions Self-compassion Self-judgment Common humanity Isolation Mindfulness Over-identification N 547 547 547 547 547 547 Attitudes toward mainstreaming total scores r p 0.141 0.001 -0.115 0.007 0.209 0.000 -0.114 0008 0.146 0.001 -0.080 0.060 As seen in Table 6, Pearson analysis results which was used to determine the relationship between sub-dimensions of ATMS and SCS scores revealed positive relationships between ATMS scores and self-compassion; self-kindness sub-scale (r = 0.141; p < 0.01), common humanity sub-scale (r = 0.209; p < 0.01), mindfulness sub-scale (r = 0.146; p < 0.01), and negative relationships between ATMS scores and self-judgment sub-scale (r = -0.115; p < 0.01) and isolation sub-scale (r = -0.114; p < 0.01). No relationship was found between over-identification sub-scale of SCS and ATMS scores (r = -0.80; p > 0.05). 475 TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION Table 7 Results of the Independent Samples T-test to Determine If the Total Scores of ATMS Varied According to the Variable of Taking Special Education/Mainstreaming Courses T-test Score Groups N x ss sh Attitude towards mainstreaming scale Yes 120 56.50 8.43 0.77 No 427 64.72 9.55 0.46 t SD p -8.54 545 0.000 As shown in Table 7, means of the total scores of Attitude Toward the Mainstreaming Scale are varied significantly accordingly to the variable of taking or not special education/mainstreaming course (t = -8.54, p < 0.001 ). The group which had taken the course showed more positive attitudes toward mainstreaming. Table 8 Results of Kruskal-Wallis H. Test to Determine If Total Scores of ATMS Varied According to the Course Taken Score Groups None Mainstreaming Special education Both Other Total Attitude towards mainstreaming scale N x sira 119 12 211 199 6 547 178.35 211.08 274.06 333.65 316.42 x2 SD p 74.36 4 0.000 Table 9 Results of Mann Whitney-U Test to Determine in Which Groups Total Scores of ATMS Varied According to the Variable of Source of Information About the Mainstreaming Groups None Mainstreaming Special education Both Other None SO = 178.35 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 p < 0.01 p > 0.05 SO = 211.08 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 SO = 274.06 p > 0.05 p > 0.05 SO = 333.65 p > 0.05 Mainstreaming Special education Both Other SO = 316.42 As shown in Table 8, the results of Kruskal-Wallis H. test which was conducted to determine if the ATMS total scores are varied with the variable of courses taken revealed that the differences between groups rankings averages are statistically significant (x2 = 74.36; p < 0.001). Since there is no technique to determine from which groups the differences occur, groups are compared binary with Mann Whitney-U analysis. As shown in Table 9, Mann Whitney-U test was conducted in order to determine in which groups do the ATMS scores varied according to source of information about mainstreaming. The group who had taken both courses showed significantly more scores on mainstreaming attitudes at the level of p < 0.1. The difference of other groups on ranking averages were not significantly different from each other (p > 0.05). As shown in Table 10, the total scores of ATMS did not vary according to the variable of having a relative with disabilities or not (t = 1.71, p > 0.05). As shown in Table 11, the group who had taken special education/mainstreaming courses did not score significantly different on SCS from the group who had not taken these courses (t = 1.80, p > 0.05). 476 TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION Table 10 Results of the Independent Samples T-test Determine If Total Score of a Varied According to the Disabled Relatives Variable Score Groups N x ss sh Attitude towards mainstreaming scale Is None 48 499 65.25 62.70 10.65 9.82 1.54 0.44 t T-test SD p 1.71 545 .088 Table 11 Results of the Independent Samples T-test to Determine If Total Scores of ATMS Varied According to the Variable of Special Education/Mainstreaming Courses Taken Score Groups N x ss sh x Self-compassion total No Yes 120 427 77.16 75.23 9.97 10.49 0.91 0.51 t T-test SD p 1.80 545 0.073 Table 12 Results of Kruskal Kruskal Wallis-H Test to Determine If the SCS Total Scores Varied According to the Variable of Courses Taken Scores Groups N x sira Self-compassion total None Mainstreaming Special education Both Other Total 119 12 211 199 6 547 296.24 348.13 277.14 252.06 301.83 x2 SD p 9.11 4 0.058 As shown in Table 12, according to the results of Kruskal Wallis-H test which was conducted to determine if taking special education or mainstreaming courses are varied according to self-compassion scores, the groups were not statistically different from each other (x2 = 9.11, p > 0.05). As shown in Table 13, according to the results of the independent samples t test, having or not a disabled relative did not affect the total scores of self compassion total scores (t = 1.90, p > 0.05). Table 13 Independent Samples T-test Results to Determine Whether Total Scores of Attitude Towards Mainstreaming Scale Varied According to Having a Disabled Relative Scores Groups N x ss sh Self-compassion total Is None 48 499 78.38 75.39 8.61 10.53 1.24 0.47 t T-test SD p 1.90 545 0.058 Discussion The aim of this research is to determine the attitudes of teacher candidates from various fields towards mainstreaming education and whether the level of self-compassion has any effect on the development of these attitudes. ANOVA analysis which was conducted to determine if the individuals’ total scores of ATMS are TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION 477 varied according to the level of self-compassion variable revealed that there’s a significant relationship between the scores of ATMS and SCS. According to Tamhane’s T2 test which was used to determine in which groups ATMS total scores varied according to the level of self-compassion variable, a statistically significant difference was between low compassion group and middle compassion group, in favor of the middle compassion group at the level of p < 0.01. Accordingly, it has been concluded that teacher candidates who have middle or higher self-compassion level, also have positive attitudes toward mainstreaming. This result is important for the teacher candidates who will work in social work field. This was also stated by Ying (2009) that it is easier to handle professional problems for individuals who work at social work fields when they have a high level of self-compassion level. Similarly, Robin and Pals (2002) said that, there’s a positive correlation between individuals’ self compassion level and developing positive attitudes toward whole life since individuals’ with high self compassion level have less harmful emotions toward life experiences. In the same direction, Neff (2011) stated that individuals who have higher level of self-compassion feel more positive emotions. Also, Yazıcı (2009) expressed that teachers’ awareness of their own needs, perceptions and emotions influence development of their self-awareness, perception of sorrowful and happy aspects of life, and this also lead them to see these effects on their own life. The findings of this research are in consistency with these statements. The analysis of SCS sub-dimensions scores and ATMS total scores showed a positive correlation between sub-dimensions of self-compassion which are related to positive affections (self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness) and ATMS total scores. Negative correlations were found between ATMS and isolation, self-judgment sub-scales of SCS and no significant relation was found between over-identification sub-scale and ATMS. These results emphasize that having positive attitudes toward mainstreaming education is in strong relation with the sub-dimensions of self-compassion concept which are related to positive affections. As the level of self-compassion, self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness increase, the level of positivity about attitudes toward mainstreaming also tends to increase. Contrarily, as the level of sub-dimensions which are related with negative affection (self-judgment and isolation) increases, positive attitudes toward mainstreaming level tend to decrease. These results overlaps with the expectations prior to research and supports the thesis of Neff (2003b) who stated that individuals with high level of self-compassion are kind and compassionate to themselves and others. Schultheiss, Jones, Davis, and Kley (2008) stated that as individuals with strong internal and autonomous motivation sources have high level of satisfaction, their negative responses and attitudes also tend to reduce. This statement and research findings emphasize the effects of teacher candidates’ psychological well being and their level of internal and autonomous motivational sources on attitudes towards individuals who need special education and mainstreaming education. Findings of this research showed that teacher candidates’ attitudes toward mainstreaming varied significantly with the variable of taking or not taking special education and mainstreaming courses, the group who had taken the courses showed more positive attitudes. With these findings, it can be once again stressed that special education and mainstreaming lectures should be included in curriculum of teacher education programs. Additionally, in this research, there also appeared to be a statistically significant difference between the group who had taken both of these courses and the group had taken neither of them. Also in a study conducted by Bender, Vail, and Scott (1995), a positive correlation was found between teachers’ attitudes and number of the courses had taken during the teacher education program of intellectually disabled. Orel, Zerey, 478 TEACHER CANDIDATES’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS INCLUSION EDUCATION and Töret (2004) observed that having special education and mainstreaming courses have positive effects on teachers’ attitudes toward mainstreaming education. It was seen in the study of Sarı and Bozgeyikli (2003), which was about teacher candidates, the variable of whether having courses on special education and mainstreaming education, was strongly in relationship with teacher candidates’ attitudes toward mainstreaming. However, it was an expected result to see that self-compassion variable did not vary from the courses taken. The analysis of whether participants have a handicapped relative did not cause a difference on self-compassion total scores. When looking through the self-compassion sub-scales, the group with the handicapped relative had significantly more scores on self-judgment and over-identification sub-scales. These results attract attention considering the concept of self-compassion. Although the individuals who have a handicapped relative are expected to show higher levels of compassion which leads to accept the difficult and distressed situations with compliance, it is interesting to see that they got high scores on self-compassion subs-scales which are related to especially to negative affection. In the study of Soyer (2010), the same results were also found in self-compassion total scores. But at the sub-scales, the findings were different; Soyer did not observe a significant difference at self-compassion sub-scales. According to the results, the variable of whether or not taking special education/mainstreaming course also did not cause a significant difference on self-compassion total scores. At self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification sub-scales, the group who had not taken the course scored more, meaning that they had more negative affection. It is interesting to observe these differences at negative affection sub-scale of self-compassion. According to the variable of taken courses, SCS total scores did not reveal a significant difference between groups. In the sub-scales, at self-judgment dimension, a significant difference favoring the group had taken both lectures, in isolation sub-scale dimension; a significant difference favoring the group had taken neither of the courses, at over-identification dimension; and a difference favoring the group had taken mainstreaming course have been observed. One of the most dramatic findings of the research is that there was no significant difference between self-compassion level and courses taken. According to these results, it would be beneficial to conduct studies on developing an awareness of the concept of self-compassion as well as giving information at the special education and mainstreaming courses. Moreover, conducting studies to evaluate the psychological well being of teacher candidates and teachers with different assessment tools, and determining the levels of attitudes toward mainstreaming and self-compassion level of teacher candidates in different universities can be advised. References Akın, Ü., Akın, A., & Abacı, R. (2007). Self-compassion scale: The study of validity and reliability. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 33, 1-10. Atay, M. (1995). An analysis of teacher attitudes towards mainstreaming programs in which handicapped children gets education with normal developing pers (Unpublished doctoral thesis, Hacettepe University). Baykoç, D. N. (2011). Children with special needs and special education. Ankara: Eğiten Kitap. Bender, W. N., Vail., C. O., & Scott, K. (1995). Teachers’ attitudes toward increased mainstreaming: Implementing effective instruction for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28(2), 87-94. Berryman, J. 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Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Journal of Special Education, 5(2), 1-13. Ministry of National Education General Directorate of Special Education Guidance and Counseling Services. (2010). Mainstreaming in our schools: Why-how? manager, teacher and family guide. Ankara. Neff, K. D. (2003a). Development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223-250. Neff, K. D. (2003b). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85-102. Neff, K. (2011). Self-Compassion: Stop beating yourself up and leave insecurity behind. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Orel, A., Zerey, Z., & Töret, G. (2004). Evaluation of primary trainee teachers’ attitude towards mainstreaming. Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Journal of Special Education, 5(1), 23-33. Özyürek, M. (2006). Changing attitudes towards disabled person. Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık. Robins, R. W., & Pals, J. L. (2002). Implicit self-theories in the academic domain: Implications for goal orientation, attributions, affect and self-esteem change. Self and Identity, 1(4), 313-336. Ryndak, D. L., & Alper, S. (1992). Educating students with severe handicaps in regular classes. The Elementary School Journal, 92(3), 373-387. Sarı, H., & Bozgeyikli, H. (2003). Evaluation of attitudes of prospective teachers towards special education: A comparative study. Selcuk University Journal of Institute of Social Sciences, 9, 183-205. Schultheiss, O. C., Jones, N. M., Davis, A. Q, & Kley, C. (2008). The role of implicit motivation in hot and cold goal pursuit: Effects on goal progress, goal rumination, and emotional well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(4), 971-987. Soyer, U. (2010). Determination of self compassion and trait anxiety levels of candidate special educators (Unpublished master’s thesis, Marmara University Institute of Educational Sciences). Sucuoğlu, B., & Kargın, T. (2006). Implementation of inclusive education in primary education: Approaches methods and techniques. İstanbul: Morpa Yayınları. Yazıcı, H. (2009). Teaching profession sources of motivation and basic attitudes: A theoretical overview. Kastamonu Education Journal, 17(1), 33-46. Ying, Y. (2009). Contribution of self-compassion to competence and mental health in social work students. Journal of Social Work Education, 45(2), 309-323. D US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 June 2013, Vol. 3, No. 6, 480-498 DAVID PUBLISHING Collaboration in Special Education: Its History, Evolution, and Critical Factors Necessary for Successful Implementation Stephen J. Hernandez Hofstra University, Hempstead, USA Collaboration in education is seen as a legal mandate, best practice in teacher practice, and necessary for the inclusion of children with special needs. Over the years, there have been a number of evolutionary incarnations of the collaborative model, each possessing various ingredients identified as important, if not essential, components of a successful professional relationship. This article provides the reader with a review of the literature regarding collaboration in education, particularly in reference to the service of students with special needs. In addition to identifying those aspects of collaboration that have been deemed critical to its success, this article also discusses the characteristics found to challenge effective collaboration. Keywords: collaboration, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary approach Introduction The Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-142), and then its most recent incarnation as the IDEIA (Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act) in 2004, mandate that students with disabilities receive their special education services in the least restrictive environment (Heward, 2013). The LRE (Least Restrictive Environment) principle stipulates that students with special needs will be educated in “settings as close to the regular educational classroom as possible in which an appropriate program can be provided and the child can make satisfactory educational progress” (Heward, 2013, p. 71). That definition notwithstanding implementation of the LRE principle has for many come to mean inclusion, or the placement and education of every student with disabilities in the general education classroom setting (Friend, 2011). Although not all students with special needs are placed in inclusive settings, general educators are nevertheless now expected to provide instruction to students with a much broader range of learning, behavioral, and developmental differences (Heward, 2013). This diversification of the student body, therefore, requires a host of ingredients to be introduced into the classroom including culturally responsive teaching (Cartledge, 2006), the application of universal design for learning, differentiated instruction, and positive behavioral supports (Friend, 2011). For this, schools rely on support services, such as special education teachers and other professionals of varied backgrounds (Heward, 2013) to work closely with one another, making collaboration a “crucial dimension to the planning, delivery, and evaluation of special education and related services… and a means to achieving inclusion” (Friend, 2011, pp. 27-28). This article reviews the research related to a number of aspects of collaboration including the legislative mandates for collaboration in special education, the varied definitions of collaboration, and the commonplace Stephen J. Hernandez, Ed.D., Director of Early Childhood Special Education, School of Education, Hofstra University. COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 481 models of collaboration that exist in the educational community, and most important are the elements of collaboration as well as the obstacles to its successful implementation and maintenance. In particular, a good deal of the literature on the subject engaged in research designed to gather data from a diverse group of pre-service professionals as well as individuals already employed in the field including general educators, special educators, speech-language pathologists, and others. With that, the research notes that fostering the collaborative process among special educators, general educators, and related service personnel requires recognizing and understanding several key influences to the process including ownership of a positive attitude (Wiggins & Damore, 2009), interpersonal skill capability (Welch & Tulbert, 2000), as well as perceived professional competency and confidence (Damore & Murray, 2009). Professional collaboration has been viewed as a beneficial tool for helping teachers and other professionals serve students with disabilities (Brownell, Adams, Sindelar, Waldron, & Vanhover, 2006; Ritzman, Sanger, & Coufal, 2006) and has been deemed as the best practice in special education (Cross, Traub, Hutter-Pishgahi, & Shelton, 2004; Barnes & Turner, 2001; Kurjan, 2000; Pena & Quinn, 2003). Gable, Mosert, and Tonelson (2004) recognized the growing emphasis on collaboration as an important strategy for educators asked to take on a wider range of responsibilities in today’s schools. Ritzman et al. (2006) noted the support collaboration offers to teachers when working with students with significant special needs. Whether the children were receiving services through early intervention (Bruder, 1998; Bruder & Dunst, 2005), were in inclusive settings (Conderman & Johnson-Rodriguez, 2009; Whitten & Zebehazy, 2003; Carpenter, King-Sears, & Keys, 1998), had mild to severe disabilities (O’Toole & Kirpatrick, 2007) or had multiple disabilities (Campbell, 1987; Downing & Baily, 1990), the idea of having professionals from various disciplines working together and collaborating was tied to the long term success of students with special needs (Banotai, 2006; as cited in Bauer, Iyer, Boon, & Fore, 2012). Conversely, the lack of collaboration by professionals had been shown to negatively impact on the extent and quality of services provided to students with special needs (Hunt, Soto, Maier, Muller, & Goetz, 2002) as well as the typical child (Hunt, Soto, Maier, Muller, & Goetz, 2001; Wallace, Anderson, & Bartolomay, 2009; Murawski & Hughes, 2009). This review begins with a discussion of the legislative mandates for collaboration in special education. The second section of the review provides an in-depth overview of the definitions of collaboration (including its evolving trends and variations). The final section provides a review of the characteristics, ingredients, and elements of collaboration as well as the obstacles that it faces. Legislative Mandates for Collaboration The first U.S. federal legislative mandate for students with disabilities began in 1975 with the passage of P.L. 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Weintraub & Kovshi, 2004). For the first time, American schools were required to provide a free and appropriate public education to children with special needs (Driesbach, Ballard, & Russo, 2001). In addition to the legal mandates of P.L. 94-142, Cootes (2007) noted best practice expectations underscores the need for collaboration while Wientraub and Kovshi (2004) noted that P.L. 94-142 required special educators and related service providers work together in the implementation of each American student’s Individualized Education Plan. This legal mandate was extended to preschool age children in the United States with reauthorization of IDEA in 1990. Finally, the reauthorization of IDEA in 1986, in particular Part H, extended special education services and the “theme of collaboration” (Welch, 1998b, p. 120) to infants and toddlers ages birth to three 482 COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION years old (Bruder & Dunst, 2005). While IDEIA 2004, the most recent incarnation of the law, does not define collaboration, it nevertheless asks state governments and their departments of education to “promote improved collaboration between special education and general education teachers” (IDEIA, 2004, p. 132) and requires a measure of teamwork in the initial evaluation of children as well as in the personnel preparation of pre-service teachers (IDEIA, 2004). It must also be noted that several professional organizations incorporated collaborative skills and dispositions (Welch, 1998a) into their standards and expectations for participating members. The CEC (Council for Exceptional Children), an international professional organization dedicated to the betterment of those with special needs, states in Special Education Content Standard #10 that “special educators routinely and effectively collaborate with families, other educators, related service providers, and personnel from community agencies in culturally responsive ways” (Friend, 2007, p. 515). In addition, the INTASC (Interstate New Teacher Assessment Standards Consortium) reflected the need for new teachers to possess skills that contributed to collaboration (Conderman & Johnson-Rodriguez, 2009). Nevertheless, Welch (1998b) noted that “professionals from related disciplines may not fully grasp the collaborative nature of special educators’ role within the context of the law” (p. 119). This may have been fostered over the years by an unintended by-product of P.L. 94-142. While P.L. 94-142 “legislated” collaboration, this ground breaking piece of legislation actually contributed to the creation of a separate culture and separate roles within education. Students were now entitled to “special education”, and in many instances, this individualized service was provided in a separate setting from the student’s typical peers, thereby fostering the development of a unique culture (Welch, 1998b) that came to reinforce the historical process that emphasized separate and fragmented service provision in conjunction with parallel rather than collaborative interaction (Harn, Bradshaw, & Ogletree, 1999; Tourse, Mooney, Kline, & Davoren 2005). The status quo was not addressed until the school reform initiatives of the 1980’s resulted in the REI (Regular Education Initiative). The impetus of this initiative was a position paper written in 1986 by Madeline Will, former director of the United States Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. In that paper, Will questioned the placement of students with disabilities in separate settings. The position paper called for special educators and regular education staff to collaborate in order to provide services to students with disabilities in the general education setting (Dettmer, Thurston, Knackendofelle, & Dyck, 2009). Understanding and Defining Collaboration Collaboration is a term that has been misunderstood and gets subsumed in the rhetoric of educational improvement (Hantzidiamantis, 2011). Any attempt to comprehend collaboration and its essential components requires an understanding of its varied definitions, concepts, and terminology. This requires careful attention, because meanings to words can vary from one user to the next and from one context to the next (Dettmer, Thurston, Knackendofelle, & Dyck, 2005). Recognizing this, the definitions of collaboration identified in the literature have been categorized below according to their primary ingredients or variables. Interdependence, Shared Perspectives, and Goals The word collaboration has its origin in the term “colabre or co-labor, which means working together” (Welch, 1998b, p. 121). Snell and Janney (2005) elaborated by stating “working together means that positive interdependence exists among team members who agree to pool and partition their resources and rewards and COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 483 to operate from a foundation of shared values” (p. 6). Wright (2001, as cited in O’Toole & Kirkpatrick, 2007), saw collaboration as “intensive joint working practice” (p. 343) while Carrea, Jones, Thomas, and Morsink (2005) defined collaboration as “a mutual effort to plan, implement, and evaluate the educational program for a given student” (p. 5). Bruder (1998) spoke of collaboration as individuals with specialization in the therapeutic, medical, and social service and educational fields coming together when a sense of functionality is bestowed upon them. Bruder and Dunst (2005) spoke of “teaming” (p. 28) as a descriptor of professionals collaborating across discipline specific boundaries for the purposes of assessment and intervention. Snell and Janney (2000) saw collaboration as individuals with diverse expertise working together to achieve mutually agreed upon objectives. Ritzman et al. (2006) noted collaboration as “characterized by parity, reciprocity, shared participation, decision making, and resources” (p. 223). Finally, Friend and Cook (2003) defined interpersonal collaboration as “a style for direct interaction between at least two coequal partners voluntarily engaged in shared decision making as they work toward a common goal” (p. 5). Interpersonal Characteristics Wade, Welch, and Jensen (1994), Welch (1998a), and Welch (1998b) provided their own definitions of collaboration, reflecting references to the “values, roles, and skills” (Rainforth & England, 1997, p. 86) required by participants in the process to be successful. Wade et al. (1994) added to the description the concepts of respect, trust, and communication. Contextual Setting and Constructs Wade et al. (1994), along with Welch and Tulbert (2000), spoke of a collaborative ethic in which an individual embodies the social, cultural, and structural constructs and dimensions of collaboration as exemplified by shared values and actions that support and encourage the collaborative process, while also respecting one another’s discipline specific skills and role in the process. Through the use of a survey issued to educators in 12 schools in Utah, Wade et al. (1994) looked to identify the concerns, needs, beliefs, and attitudes general educators and specialists had regarding collaboration designed to promote the inclusion of children with special needs into general education classes. Other purposes included identifying if teacher and school characteristics impacted on the interest an individual had toward collaborative engagements. The findings of the research indicate that in general, teachers (general educators and special education teachers) will be more inclined to engage in collaboration, if they are interested in the intended goals and if those goals are in keeping with their own role, practice, and philosophy of teaching. The researchers also determined that individuals will collaborate if they are provided administrative support and believe that their autonomy will be maintained. In addition, the findings indicate that smaller schools, or those with less than 27 faculty members, are more inclined to engage in collaborative efforts than teachers that come from larger schools. It was also determined that general education teachers with a long tenure in one school (more than 10 years) are not as interested in collaborating with other staff. Finally, the data indicate that collaborators are generally more confident in their own skills or their abilities to acquire those skills that are required for collaboration. Overall, the researchers found that as a group, special educators indicated more than one of interest in collaboration in comparison to general education teachers. Without having any direct evidence, they presumed that finding may result from the “ethos of being a special education teacher… to take the role of an advocate for… children with disabilities, which involves consulting or collaborating with others with other professionals” (Wade et al., 1994, p. 200). 484 COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION Welch and Tulbert (2000) conducted an investigation designed to socially validate the characterization and operational definitions of collaboration as described in the professional literature and quantitatively identify salient features of collaboration. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase one employed an Adelphi methodology and asked practitioners to define and describe the collaborative process. Open-ended surveys were sent to general education teachers, special education teachers, administrators, and related service providers. A follow-up factor analysis factor analysis revealed several factors as salient components of collaboration including the need for a cultural ethic within the organization. Welch, Sheridan, Wilson, Colton, and Mayhew (1996) were clear to infuse into the definition the influence of cultural and systemic variables, while Ritzman et al. (2006) emphasized that the promotion of a collaborative ethic requires team participation in all aspects of program planning. Wade et al. (1994) added to the description of the contextual aspect of collaboration by noting the need for joint commitment of resources and shared ownership within the framework of an ecological perspective. The fact that collaboration has so many definitions is only one of the variables that need to be accounted for when attempting to understand its diversity and complexity. In addition to the nuances that emerge and the potential for cognitive dissonance when attempting to arrive at a coalesced meaning, it is also necessary to explain and account for the evolution of the basic tenets of collaboration that have developed over the years. Evolving Models of Collaboration As aptly described by Lawson, collaboration involves new relations between two or more “entities” (Lawson, 2004, p. 2). The way in which individuals collaborate can be viewed through a lens which focuses on how individuals relate and interact with one another as well as how they provide intervention for those they serve (Lawson, 2004). In education, the manner in which individuals collaboratively relate to one another are commonly called models of collaboration and consist of the multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches (Friend, 2010). Each approach has different sets of underlying assumptions that guide teacher and team actions. All three approaches incorporate the participation of service providers, but that is essentially where the similarity ends. According to Carpenter, King-Sears, and Keyet (1998), how team members interact with each other and within their world make a difference in terms of the approach employed. Differences found between the above three approaches were assessed by analyzing the organizational structure and purposeful function of the team. Structure alludes to the team’s organization, membership, and corresponding role(s). Function refers to the intent, actions, and purpose of the interaction. Further analysis concluded with the understanding that functions exist within a continuum that ranges from the individualized and segregated application of skills to the integrated implementation of knowledge (Carpenter et al., 1998). Multidisciplinary Approach The multidisciplinary teaming approach is characterized by the application of services by a variety of different disciplines acting independently (Carpenter et al., 1998; Stepans, Thompson, & Buchanan, 2002). Even with the presence of multiple disciplines, the level of active involvement by each discipline was found to be limited within the framework of the multidisciplinary approach. The overall approach of the multidisciplinary model presumes that only those trained in the specific field are capable of assessing and serving the child in need of their expertises (Kritikos, LeDosquent, & Melton, 2012). An example would be an occupational therapist trained in understanding fine motor skills being the only discipline capable of working COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 485 with the child on handwriting and shoelace tying. This perspective then results in much of the assessment and intervention process occurring in isolation of the other service disciplines and providers (Kritikos et al., 2012). Interdisciplinary Approach The interdisciplinary approach, on the other hand, attempts to create an atmosphere of collaboration, primarily through enhanced coordination and cooperative engagements amongst disciplines during assessment and activity planning (Carpenter et al., 1998). The interdisciplinary approach may still result in the disciplines assessing students independently from one another, professionals using an interdisciplinary approach can engage one another in a variety of ways including conferring with one another during the assessment, program development, and intervention processes (Kritikos et al., 2012). While this approach engenders an enhanced exchange of information, boundaries were noted to exist between team members that constrict the flow of information, dialogue, and effective implementation (Carpenter et al., 1998; Stepans et al., 2002). Transdisciplinary Approach The transdisciplinary approach, or TD approach, has been promoted as an example of outstanding collaborative practice, ever since its development in the 1960s (York, Rainforth, & Giangreco, 1990). Initially developed to aid in the coordination of therapeutic and medical services for infants (Campbell, 1987), it was further refined by the United Cerebral Palsy National Collaborative Infant Project of 1976 (Stepans, Thompson, & Buchanan, 2002) in order to provide a “comprehensive and coordinated assessment system” (Stepans et al., 2002, p. 239) for young children with severe and multiple disabilities. The goal was the establishment of a more relevant and appropriate Individualized Education Program for each student. In comparison to the multi- and inter- disciplinary approaches, the TD approach has been promoted to be more effective in many ways, most notably in the creation of an integrated team structure and service delivery, deliberate and regular cross discipline communications, knowledge exchange across disciplines and its strong student focus (Downing & Baily, 1990; Carpenter et al., 1998; Stepans et al., 2002; York et al., 1990). This integration of services within the team structure has been identified as a key component of the TD approach and is in contrast to the traditional model characterized by isolating, discipline specific therapeutic intervention (Downing & Baily, 1990). Within an integrated team environment, team members are to engage in a collaborative and collective power structure that emphasizes parental participation and cross discipline intervention methodologies (Carpenter et al., 1998; Downing & Baily, 1990; Stepans et al., 2002). In the TD model, practitioners “share responsibility for student learning by expanding and exchanging knowledge within and between team members” (Prelock, Miller, & Reed, 1995). An example is when a speech-language pathologist acquires an understanding of the classroom curriculum while the classroom teacher learns to facilitate communication from the students (Prelock et al., 1995). In many respects, the TD approach and its integration of services employs practices that have been characterized as a mixing of services with the assignment of one therapist as the primary or lead service professional (York et al., 1990; Downing & Baily, 1990). This approach has also been represented as a consultative model where the various team members funnel information and strategies needed by the lead therapist for program intervention (Campbell, 1987). In both cases, there is a collective responsibility for the creation and implementation of the educational and therapeutic plan. No individual is solely responsible for the progress and development in any particular skill area. Intervention is a shared event requiring an expansion or exchange of one’s role, eventually leading to role release (Campbell, 1987; Carpenter et al., 1998; Prelock et al., 486 COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 1995; Stepans et al., 2002). Role release is the process where professionals engage in a variety of different therapeutic and instructional activities across discipline boundaries, thereby giving up or releasing their role to another member of the team. For successful implementation, this process necessitated the transfer of discipline specific knowledge and skills. “To assure the collective store of knowledge, skill, and perspectives is tapped, every team member, including staff, students, and family members, assumes the role of teacher, learner, and implementer” (Rainforth & England, 1997, p. 91). For this to occur, teams needed to establish parity, mutual trust, and respect amongst all team members as well as open communication between all parties (Downing & Baily, 1990; Prelock et al., 1995). Co-teaching Another version of collaboration is the co-teaching, cooperative teaching, or a collaborative teaching approach. These models can be considered one in the same and are more recent development in the evolution of the collaborative model (Rainforth & England, 1997; Welch, 1998b). This collaborative approach to teaching results in the teaming of general and special educators in an inclusionary classroom setting but can also apply to teaming profiles which include related service professionals, such as speech/language pathologists, occupational therapists, and counselors (Rainforth & England, 1997). Rainforth and England (1997) and Welch (1998b) noted that while there are multiple co-teaching models, the approach typically requires joint academic intervention by at least two professionals in a classroom setting populated, in natural proportions, with students of typical ability, as well as students with special needs. Many of the characteristics were identified as key ingredients of the other collaborative models, especially the TD approach, have also been identified as necessary for successful implementation of a co-teaching model. Included in this model is open communication, parity, role release, and consistent collaborative intervention (Sileo, 2011). Friend (2011) provided an example of a more highly collaborative type of co-teaching, specifically the team teaching model where two teachers “fluidly share the instructional responsibilities of the entire student group” (p. 113), and share the instructional work load by teaching each student but not just the student with or without special needs. As can be seen, when one talks about collaboration, one needs to be conscious of the multiple variations that exist and the variables they create. In addition, one must recognize that collaboration is a process that is separated from the activities in which it is used (Snell & Janney, 2005). Collaboration is not just a set of actions but “a way of being” (Pugach & Johnson, 2002). The collaborative process “reframes” (Dettmer et al., 2005, p. 14) how teachers and therapists engage each other in educational contexts. Finally, the multitude of personnel and other stakeholders involved in the process must be recognized in an analysis of the essential characteristics required for the successful implementation of collaboration (Friend & Cook, 2003). Factors, Ingredients, and Elements Impacting Collaboration The elements, competencies, and obstacles associated with successful collaboration arise from a foundation of understanding schools, demonstrating the ability to process sometimes subtle information, and delivering it all with resources in a helpful context (Dettmer et al., 2005). The work involved in collaboration has varied but interrelated factors and ingredients that have been identified as important in the development of collaborative skills within a person (Snell & Janney, 2005). These characteristics are: (1) Perspectives, attitudes, and preparation; (2) Professional efficacy; COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 487 (3) Interpersonal skill capacity; (4) Contextual setting and organizational capacity. The last three characteristics are particularly important once teachers enter the schools with the literature noting these as essential to the development of successful collaborative relationships (Brownell et al., 2006; Butera, 2005; Welch & Tulbert, 2000). But even before the individual begins their first day as a teacher, they enter the school building with, as Hantzidimantis (2011) noted, notions regarding their role as an educator that impacts on how they enter into collaborative relationships with other teachers and the diverse group of professionals they will most likely come into contact with. These notions, as well as specifics regarding the other elements and ingredients that impact on the collaborative process are discussed in more detail below. Perspectives, Attitudes, and Preparation Individuals enter into the “teaching profession with a strong and enduring set of beliefs and attitudes about teaching and learning… that… greatly influence how they approach any cooperative teaching effort” (Hantzidimantis, 2011, p. 31). In contrast, while the modern day pre-service teacher has probably experienced the use of social media as a vehicle for engaging and working with others, it is unlikely that they have used their interactional skills to work collaboratively on behalf of a student with special needs (Dettmer et al., 2005), reinforcing the belief that many of them do not feel prepared to work with others in a professional capacity, while also exhibiting the limited training and experience they have in collaborative service provision (Conderman & Johnson-Rodriguez, 2009). As Dettmer et al. (2005) noted, the recognition that even as a new teacher one is expected to actively engage other professionals and disciplines in constructive dialogue without having the professional self-assurance that usually comes with experience often results in the novice teacher deferring to the attitudes and perspectives of the more seasoned professional. That though can come with its own perils for as Dettmer et al. (2005) suggested, good collaboration involves participants taking individual responsibility for their actions. Welch et al. (1996) provided us with an overview of the challenges confronted by a number of different professionals including general and special educators in a study that recognized the relative isolated preparation of special education and related service professionals. As such, the authors worked to develop a professional preparation program called the STEP (Site-Based Transdisciplinary Educational Partnerships Project) which was collaborative action research with an ecological focus designed to prepare teachers in both general education and special education to learn and function successfully in a collaborative environment within school settings that serve children at risk. School psychologist and school administrators were also included in the research process. The researchers categorized the project’s activities in “three domains: inquiry, reflection, and outcomes” (Welch et al., 1996, p. 226). Welch et al.’s (1996) study enrolled 72 university students from several education and related professional preparation programs and placed them in area school districts. They were assigned to work with each other in transdisciplinary cohorts to address the needs of students at risk. The intent was to have the university students engage in collaborative interactions and learn about each other’s discipline through direct interaction. The STEP project’s transdisciplinary field experiences included action research projects, interviews, observations, and various other activities including, for example, the preparation and implementation of a team-teaching activity and a social skills curriculum. Welch et al.’s (1996) study on STEP was viewed as a success in educating the participants in the benefits 488 COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION of a transdisciplinary approach with several outcomes showing the effectiveness of the STEP’s endeavors. Specifically, nine of the 10 action research projects were deemed successful with at least four of the projects adopted by the participating schools. The focus group discussions produced additional data showing positive attitudinal perspectives from the university participants towards the adoption of a transdisciplinary perspective as well as enhanced recognition of the importance of collaboration. The authors did not identify any negative results from the STEP, but noted the challenges that emerged as a result of its implementation process. Specifically, the authors encountered resistance from administrators in area schools who thought that their school and staff would be strained as a result of the presence of the university students and the researchers. Examining the perspectives of newly appointed special education teachers, Conderman and Stephens (2000) reported that novice special educators found collaborative relationship development more challenging than many other aspects of teaching. The reasons for this were varied including the belief that many of these novice teachers lacked training in collaboration at the pre-service level. This perspective was reiterated by Dettmer, Thurston, Knackendoffel, and Dyck (2005). Carlson, Brauen, Klein, Schroll, and Willig (2002) reported that just more than half of all teachers reported having coursework in collaboration while less than 30% of all general education teachers had coursework in the subject. The seemingly lack of collaborative skill development by pre-service teachers lead a number of researchers to investigate the matter. The professional preparation and development of future collaborators was recognized by Conderman and Johnson-Rodriguez (2009), Bruder and Dunst (2005), Robinson and Sadao (2005), and Welch et al. (1996) as important in understanding the evolution of collaboration. These authors provided studies pertinent to the preparation of future professionals. Conderman and Johnson-Rodgriguez (2009) conducted a pilot study that surveyed the perceptions of beginning general education teachers and special educators regarding the “importance of skills associated with their collaborative roles under IDEIA” (p. 236). The authors surveyed 46 teachers from the ranks of general education and special education at both the elementary and secondary levels using a four-point Likert scale to indicate the respondents “perception of the importance of 20 skills related to inclusion and collaboration” (Conderman & Johnson-Rodriguez, 2009, p. 236). The authors also engaged the participants in a subsequent research component that prompted responses to five open-ended questions. The results of the survey included responses from 28 special educators from the elementary and secondary level, representing the largest subgroup of the surveyed respondents. Findings from the Likert portion of the survey included acknowledgement that both groups of special educators felt least prepared when it came to working with other staff including professional and paraprofessional staff. In addition to the Likert scale survey, Conderman and Johnson-Rodriguez (2009) questioned their respondents using open-ended survey questions. The second question asked survey participants to identify what they felt were the most challenging aspects of their current positions. The responses to this question were grouped into a theme that resulted in 11 comments expressing concern with the “interpersonal issues and the challenges of working with others because of differences in philosophy and style” (p. 239). A number of respondents also commented on the need for training in collaboration as well as the need for new teachers to “reflect on their personal qualities” (p. 240). Conderman and Johnson-Rodriguez (2009) went on to discuss the more global issues presented in the data, including the difficulty novice teachers had when it came to collaborative engagements with their peers. They also stated that new teachers were more successful, if properly supported in the context of a collaborative culture. They concluded their discussion recommending additional inquiry into the motivations of personnel education, when it comes to their engagement in COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 489 collaborative relationships. In 2005, Robinson and Sado detailed the PFL (person-focused learning) teaching approach to prepare future professionals in augmentative and alternative communication in the dynamics of teamwork and collaborative relationships with families. The authors saw the critical need for special educators, speech language pathologists, psychologists, and other professionals to work collaboratively in the implementation of augmentative and alternative communication services in educational settings. Including 71 undergraduates and graduate students from three universities in the western United States, as well as seven individuals with significant communication needs and their families, the authors collected data through the use of interviews, questionnaires, self-reflective reporting, and the review of reports and assessments written by the students with commentary by the service recipients and/or their families. As a result, they created the PFL to promote collaborative, applied interactions with family members and those with disabilities. PFL incorporated teaching and learning methods, such as critical thinking and problem-solving skills in order to work more effectively with individuals with disabilities and their families. It also provided pre-service training with emphasis on the need for sensitivity to family perspectives as the future professionals also learn about and practice effective family collaboration. PFL was incorporated into three courses designed for the mixed group of future professionals at three different universities. With the incorporation of reflective practice, the authors noted the enhanced recognition by the students in several areas, including positive attitudinal change towards collaboration as well as enhanced sensitivity to families and individuals with disabilities. In comparison to the above studies, Bruder and Dunst (2005) noted the lack of adequate training of professionals to work collaboratively with each other. Their study was based on a national survey of pre-professional training of early childhood educators, occupational therapists, physical therapists as well as speech/language pathologists in various practices necessary for effective professional development and service provision, including teaming practices. In their study, Bruder and Dunst (2005) distributed a comprehensive survey of 449 undergraduate and graduate programs (237 and 212 respectfully) involved in the training of future early intervention professionals. Their results found that none of the pre-professional training programs felt that they did sufficient work in preparing their students to enter the field and have the skills necessary to collaborate effectively. On the other hand, the survey did show variation in the success of these programs to train particular disciplines. Specifically, programs in early childhood special education and multidisciplinary training showed moderate to above moderate training in teaming practices while all of the related service disciplines (OT (Occupational Therapy), PT (Physical Therapy), and SLP (Speech-Language Pathology)) provided below moderate training. Team training in physical therapy was even more dearth than that of the other disciplines, showing almost little or no training in teaming. Rainforth and England (1997) noted that even before collaboration can be successfully implemented, the process required prospective team members to exchange knowledge and insight into each other’s professional storehouse of expertise. One must note though that teachers and other professionals are expected to enter the educational venue with all they need to know in order to be good practitioners (Tren & Boles, 2011) but in fact, “most educators have not received training to work collaboratively, and therefore, are learning to work as a team at the same time they must operate as a team” (Snell & Janney, 2005, p. 25). These conflicting expectations create that much more of a challenge for teachers and therapists. In addition, special education staff are likely to engage in a collaborative setting that emphasizes communication and cross discipline training and intervention strategies (Carpenter, King-Sears, & Keys, 1998; Downing & Baily, 1990; Stepans et al., 490 COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 2002). Professional Efficacy Ritzman et al. (2006) stated that a key principle to effective collaboration was having “professionals within a school combine their expertise to create a multitude of options for students with special needs” (p. 221). Theunderstanding added to the perspectives of a number of researchers (Hantizidimantis, 2011; Damore & Murray, 2009; Brownell et al., 2006; Butera, 2005; Harn, Bradshaw, & Ogletree, 1999; Kurjan, 2000; Prelock et al., 1995) who identified the role of perceived professional competency and confidence in the development of collaborative relationships. Butera (2005) identified the role of professional competence and interpersonal skill capability in a case study involving organizational providers (special educators, social workers, administrators, and nurses) engaged in service to a young child with special needs in rural Appalachia named Cassie. The case study sought to understand the contextual setting of Cassie and the role of collaborative service delivery. The author emphasized the transactional nature of relationships and its key to understanding how multidisciplinary service systems work by showing how Cassie influenced the relationships that participated in the collaborative environment and the interactions of individuals designed to serve her. As noted by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, relationships benefit from the continual exchange of ideas and actions between individuals interacting with each other. Recognizing the reciprocal role interpersonal interactions have was critical to understand how a collaborative environment should work. Results provided insight into the critical factors that contribute to effectiveness, specifically the role of status barriers, or when individuals use differences in professional position as the reason to limit engagement, as well as the perceptions of professional competence and interpersonal skill capability along with professional practice and service implementation. Brownell et al. (2006) examined how teachers from two elementary schools accepted and integrated information learned from others into their own instructional repertoire. The findings provided an understanding of those “high adopter” teachers who were most inclined to incorporate strategies learned in collaborative professional development. Their inclination to modify and adopt was noticeably in contrast to those teachers identified as moderate or low adopters of collaborative strategies. Other findings noted that high adopters had more knowledge regarding curriculum and pedagogy, an understanding of student behavior and how to manage it as well as greater insight and ability to individualize student instruction. They concluded that professional confidence and open mindedness played a role in the development of collaborative relationships and integrated therapy provision amongst special educators. The need for professional efficacy was also evident in Prelock et al. (1995). This study described key components for establishing collaborative partnerships for delivering services to children with communication disorders, including establishing a transdisciplinary approach, marketing the collaborative concept, and providing collaborative in-service training. The study emphasized the need to have staff involved in collaborative engagement go through a process in order to achieve a successful level of service integration. The study centered on the task of “role release” (Prelock et al., 1995, p. 293), or the elimination of professional barriers to engagement, in order to achieve successful service integration. The researchers emphasized the process involved in role release and reiterated the critical part it has in the push-in therapy model. In a similar study, Spann-Hite, Picklesimer, and Hamilton (1999) studied the willingness of teachers to allow speech-language pathologists to participate in classroom activities. The study surveyed 37 employees of COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 491 28 schools located in the southeastern United States. The participants included general education teachers, special educators as well as a speech-language pathologist serving students with and without special needs in kindergarten through eighth grade. The researchers asked the participants to respond to 20 items designed to disclose their opinions regarding inclusion and the interdisciplinary approach. A Likert scale was used with scores ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The findings of the study found that a majority of the participants believed that an effective inclusionary classroom could benefited from having a special educator and speech-language pathologist as “collaborative partners” (Spann-Hite, Picklesimer, & Hamiltion, 1999, p. 12) in the classroom with the regular education teacher. In addition, the authors found that the participants’ willingness to collaborate was highly dependent on their sense of efficacy and self-confidence. Sileo (2011) cited the importance of confidence in one’s skills as a professional, noting that “special educators often assume more participatory roles when they feel confident with curricular content” (p. 35) while O’Toole and Kirkpatrick (2007) documented the need for “mutual respect for each person’s skills and individual contributions” (p. 326). Conversely, McCartney (1999, as cited in O’Toole & Kirpatrick, 2007), described how some teachers and speech therapists note “feeling vulnerable and deskilled” when it comes to collaborative teamwork. Finally, Walker, Shea, and Bauer (2004) noted that effective teachers were “authentic teachers, exhibiting self-insight, self-acceptance, self-appraisal, and realistic self-confidence” (p. 48). As discussed with regard to the definition of collaboration, Wade et al. (1994) reinforced the importance of these aspects of collaboration with the identification of several variables, specifically the attitudinal and experiential compatibility of potential team members. In their study, regular education teachers and special educators were surveyed regarding their concerns, needs, beliefs, and attitudes regarding collaboration designed to promote inclusion. The study showed that teachers whose values, attitudes, and experiences conflict with those being expressed as part of the collaborative process are less likely to adopt collaborative initiatives. The author noted that teachers ready to collaborate were generally more self-confident in their ability to acquire collaborative skills, such as role sharing. Possessing a modicum of professional efficacy and a sense of competency was critical in overcoming any hesitancy associated with collaboration. As referenced earlier, Spann-Hite et al. (1999) noted the willingness of teachers to allow speech language pathologists to participate in classroom activities was highly dependent on their own sense of efficacy as a teacher and their ability to manage students with behavioral disabilities. Trimble and Peterson (1999) noted the enhanced sense of efficacy teachers felt when administrators eliminated the need for individual lesson plans. The study also showed heightened collaborative effectiveness by team members along with improved student outcomes as a result of the administrative support associated with the collaborative undertaking. Hartas (2004, as citted in O’Toole & Kirpatrick, 2007) believed that “senior staff need to recognize the benefits of collaboration and allocate appropriate time, and that there should be a clear objective and a clear sense of direction about what is important in therapy and education for children with special needs if collaboration is to be successful” (p. 346). As noted above, the importance of one’s sense of professional capability and efficacy as a component in the milieu of ingredients necessary for an individual to effectively collaborate cannot be underestimated. A number of researchers, including Prelock et al. (1995), Harn, Bradshaw, and Ogletree (1999), and Hantizidimantis (2011), identified one’s sense of competency and confidence as critical in the development of their collaborative ethic. But as noted by Butera (2005), participants in the collaborative process are components in a transactional relationship and as noted below; their collaborative capabilities are also 492 COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION influenced by interpersonal skill capacities. Interpersonal Skill Capacity Successful interpersonal relationships, one’s attitudinal perspective and how they influence team cohesion and collaborative engagement was the subject of research by a number of researchers (Butera, 2005; Harn et al., 1999; Lim & Adelman, 1997; Niles & Marcellino, 2004; Pena & Quinn, 2003; Wiggins & Damore, 2006). Butera (2005) applied an ecological model of development to how interpersonal skills play a major role in the perspective one has towards other staff and administration. Conversely, Harn et al. (1999) discussed how characteristics, such as trust and open communication aid in developing a collaborative climate within an organization. Researchers, such as Lim and Adelman (1997), Niles and Marcellino (2004), Pena and Quinn (2003), and Wiggins and Damore (2006), all touched upon the need for teams to develop relationships amongst individuals, commit to collaboration and engage in a psychology of collaboration or role release. Lim and Adelman (1997) correlated the intensity of staff commitment to collaboration to the success those teams achieve. Niles and Marcellino (2004) discussed the issues surrounding team work and collaboration while noting the need for the establishment and maintenance of trust, respect, and communication. Wiggins and Damore (2006) discussed the need for individuals to have a positive attitude and a shared philosophy as well as the critical nature of communication and cooperation for effective collaboration while Kritikos, LeDosquet, and Melton (2010) emphasized the “attributes of friendliness, ability to listen, clarity and honesty… in the establishment of a… communicative pathway” (p. 60) that lends itself to an atmosphere fostering engagement and collaboration. In addition, Welch and Tulbert (2000) noted in their factor analysis of special educators, general education teachers, administrators and related service providers the need for future professionals to recognize and understand the “cultural, systemic, philosophical dimensions of collaboration… and the interpersonal dynamics of the collaborative relationship” (Welch & Tulbert, 2000, p. 374). In addition, others, such as Scruggs (2007, as cited in Sileo, 2011), discussed the need for relationship building by team members and the critical aspect of personal compatibility of the participants. Finally, these findings were supported by Damore and Murray (2008) in their study about urban elementary school teachers engaged in collaborative instruction. In this study, 118 general and special educators from 20 urban elementary schools were surveyed using the “Collaborative Teaching Survey” as designed by the authors. This instrument elicited the participants “perceptions about collaboration, their views regarding inclusion, and what is needed to ensure effective collaborative teaching” (Damore & Murray, 2008, p. 234). The authors noted the high value placed by respondents on the “interpersonal constructs of positive attitudes” (Damore & Murray, 2008, p. 243) and believed that additional research was needed in order to more fully understand this connection to successful collaboration in the classroom setting. Contextual Setting and Organizational Capacity In addition to the attitudes, beliefs and values that individuals have towards collaboration, organizations as a whole and groups within larger organizations may substantially influence collaborative development through several other variables. These include the openness versus restrictiveness of the relationships within the group. Groups with restricted or closed relationships have barriers which prevent external stimuli from influencing the functioning of the group (Wade et al., 1994). An unproductive relationship can, therefore, produce far reaching and long term consequences. Sileo (2011) noted the need for parity amongst team members and the importance of discussing with your COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 493 team members the “nitty-gritty details” (p. 34), including such things as intervention approaches, daily chores and shared space. Even those who are supportive of the collaborative and integrated service processes can find themselves overwhelmed. Just the need for regular communication can be a challenge and burden. A study by Hartas (2004) as noted in O’Toole and Kirpatrick (2007) involving 25 educators and 17 speech therapists reinforced the findings in Sileo (2011), noting that 79%-82% of the participants saw time commitments and constraints as the sacrifices they needed to make in order for collaboration to work with each other. In addition, the participants cited the lack of time and organizational structure in support of collaboration as “serious concerns” (Sileo, 2011, p.14). These issues were cited in a number of other studies, including Liu and Pearson (1999), Robbins-Etlen (2009) and Gallagher, Malone, and Ladner (2009) in studies involving general education teachers and special educators collaborating in an effort to serve students with developmental disabilities in inclusive settings. Gallagher et al. (2009) found time constraints and lack of commitment by school staff as hindrances to collaborative engagements amongst psychologists and other psycho-social support personnel in support to school-based support teams serving students with disabilities. These hindrances point to the need for education and training (Welch, 1998b) and administrative support (Moore-Brown, 1991) in the continued development of collaborative and integrated service delivery systems. In fact, while Mastropieri (2001; as cited in Bauer et al., 2012) noted that the time constraints often limit collaboration, others noted that additional time in the collaborative process sometimes results in less time for engagement in the actual work needed to accomplish the mutually agreed upon goals (Dule, Korner, Williams, & Carter, 1999). Highlighting the organizational impact on collaboration, Trimble and Peterson (1999) illustrated the institutional, administrative and/or organizational support necessary for collaboration to be successful. In an in-depth study utilizing multiple sources of data gathered through inventories, student performance data, interviews and an examination of school documents, the authors found that administrative support enhanced team processes and student performance. The study showed that certain administrative practices were supportive of team engagement and the overall institutionalization of collaboration within the school. These administrative practices included modeling of effective collaborative practices, commitment to collaboration as an obligation by every professional, an interest in and dissemination of best practice research data, the training of staff in team practices, and regular feedback regarding team planning. Lehr (1999) described that in a case study particular areas of administrative support as essential to the degree of success teachers achieving collaborative teaching including “voluntary participation, adequate planning time, and resources, collaborative training and high visibility of collaboration” (Lehr, 1999, p. 28). These findings, in addition to the results found in Dinnebeil, Hale, and Rule (1999), and the ecological perspective in Butera (2005), recognized the significant direct and transactional influence administrators have in how they use their authority to establish organizational constructs that are necessary for collaboration to succeed. In addition, Conderman and Johnson-Rodriguez (2009), at the conclusion of their study, proposed that a culture supporting collaboration is more likely to result in teachers, especially novice ones, taking on collaborative roles themselves. They also discussed the need for collaboration to be taught in a fashion that goes beyond the constructs of legal and professional mandates and more into the complexities of collaboration with its “contextual nuances” (Conderman & Johnons-Rodgriguez, 2009, p. 243). 494 COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION Obstacles to Collaboration Although current practices, such as inclusion, has led to a partial dissolution of the cultural divide between general and special education, there remains a host of issues that constrain the ability of professionals to collaborate effectively (Bruder & Dunst, 2005; Harn et al., 1999; Friend, 2000; Rainforth & England, 1997; Welch, 1998b). First, there have been a number of perspectives regarding the concept and process of collaboration that need clarification (Downing & Baily, 1990; Welch, 1998b; Friend, 2000; Bauer et al., 2010). To begin, Downing and Baily (1990) addressed those who were concerned with the shared responsibility component of the process by assuring them that the collective nature of collaboration and its sense of mutual responsibility are in fact, one of the most successful characteristics and leads to a variety of desired outcomes, including enhanced acquisition of student skills. In addition, Welch (1998b) noted several other concerns prevalent in the educational community with regard to collaboration and its intent. First, to coordinate or to be cooperative does not equate to collaboration. Coordinating is a managerial process designed to accomplish certain tasks while cooperation is a process where people may agree to certain activities, whether they are mutually beneficial to all of the parties involved. Friend (2000) highlighted a few of these added realities, including the belief that collaboration comes naturally and is an easy process to engage in. Friend (2000) noted that it is not uncommon to hear how difficult it is to collaborate, including the time and effort to implement and maintain collaboration. Collaboration is not about liking someone or being liked, it is about trust, respect, and outcomes. Collaboration is not a stand-alone process being employed for its own sake. It is a technique designed to accomplish a goal in a manner not attainable by you alone (Bauer et al., 2010). In addition, some in the field of special education as well as some in other professions have resisted efforts to collaborate. Dule et al. (1999) identified the “ambivalence” (p. 259) and “significant difficulties” (p. 260) therapists experience when involved in a collaborative team approach. Niles and Marcellino (2004) looked at the bigger picture to explain how our society’s emphasis on individualism is behind the hesitation of many participants when it comes to working together and collaboration in general. The study provided insight into the concept of needs based negotiation as a means of creating and sustaining relationships and an effective collaborative environment. Rainforth and England (1997) discussed why not all service providers are enamored with collaboration. In fact, the field of speech language pathology has documented the field’s preference for isolated service provision (Ritzman et al., 2006). This perspective is substantiated by Bundy (1995), as cited in Weintraub and Kovshi (2004) who noted that a small percentage, less than 10%, of all occupational therapists is trained to serve students in the classroom setting. Others in education see collaborative engagements as contrary to their professional demeanor and express preference to work independently. This includes teachers (Troen & Boles, 2011), speech language pathologist, and occupational therapist (Ritzman et al., 2006). Even if the innate human impulse for autonomy was overcome, and while team members may demonstrate a desire to collaborate, the fact remains that “team members typically lack the skills, tools, and support structures that would allow them to orchestrate significant pedagogical and curriculum changes through the collaborative work of the team” (Troen & Boles, 2011, p. 1). In addition, it should not forget that just like any relationship, including a collaborative one, there are conditions where the relationship flourishes as well as conditions where it will not. One condition includes the privatization of practice or as Lortie (1975) noted, the cellular nature of teaching. COLLABORATION IN SPECIAL EDUCATION 495 Besides the challenges collaboration faces due to the restrictions placed upon it by human interaction, there are other aspects of special education that negatively impact on the ability of staff to collaboration effectively. One factor included changes in how special education is funded. Every year there is a greater use of Medicaid funds which creates additional growth of documentation requirements (Scalise, 2005). It is not unusual for a therapy provider to have three or four documents to complete each time they serve a student (Mintz, 2003). This is particularly true in the provision of early intervention for infants and toddlers as well as related services for students through their school age years. These changes in the management of special education and its funding have also led to mandated productivity levels for service providers (Hamel, 2003), requiring therapists to provide therapy to more students and then documenting it, resulting in less time for engaging for collaboration with other staff. Lastly, one cannot underestimate the negative impact mandated testing and national standards have on collaborative engagements amongst service providers. The resulting competiveness and high-stakes ranking that occurs in this new era create a “climate of uncertainty” (Snell & Janney, 2005, p. 16) for collaborative teams who now must work on enabling all students to meet mandated standards, not just provide stimulating student instruction. Conclusions As detailed above, the development, acquisition, and maintenance of the skills needed to effectively collaborate encompass a variety of ingredients. These components include the perspectives and attitudes pre-service teachers have on collaboration along with the training and professional development they receive before they enter the profession. Additional components of collaboration include the professional expertise and efficacy of the collaborators as well as their interpersonal skills. Finally, the contextual setting in which collaboration is occurring must be considered when attempting to understand the process. 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