Mehmet Hişyar KORKUSUZ1 Ersoy KUTLUK DEVELOPMENT OF
Transkript
Mehmet Hişyar KORKUSUZ1 Ersoy KUTLUK DEVELOPMENT OF
Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s.124-150 Mehmet Hişyar KORKUSUZ1 Ersoy KUTLUK2 DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGERIAL PSYCHO-SOCIAL WELD POOL FOR BALANCING POLITICAL STRESS Abstract Modern people are encumbered with business and/or stress every time. Examination of these two concepts together gives the key of success and satisfaction. Therefore, efficiency which is the goal of production is carried through with paying attention to human factor. These issues and facts those are necessary for management is also true to all political and social area and politicians as well. Policy makers can encounter different and multidimensional events in today’s political life. These events leave them in case of taking decisions those results would be a versatile and effective. This situation creates stress on the politicians. Coping with political stress that occur as a result of internal and external factors and balancing its negative effects are important for achieving success. In this process with strengthening the psycho-social opportunities and weld pool, process of coping with stress will attain a certain balance profile in time. Keywords: Political Stress, Management, Organization, Coping with Stress, the Model of Seesaw. POLİTİK STRESİN DENGELENMESİNDE YÖNETSEL PSİKO-SOSYAL KAYNAK HAVUZUNUN GELİŞTİRİLMESİ Özet Modern insan hemen her an iş ve/veya stres ile yüklüdür. Bu iki kavramın birlikte ele alınıp incelenmesi başarı ve doyumun anahtarını verir. Böylelikle üretimin amacı olan verimlilik, insan faktörü de göz önünde tutularak gerçekleştirilmiş olur. Yönetim için gerekli olan bu konular ve gerçekler siyasal ve sosyal alanın tümü ve 1 Assistant Professor Doctor (Mehmet H. Korkusuz has been appointed as Asst.Prof.Dr. to the Istanbul Arel University Dept. of Political Science and Public Administration, in 2012). Now he is going on his academic study and research freely in Berlin and Istanbul, M.Korkusuz@gmx.net 2 Assistant Professor Doctor (Ersoy Kutluk has been appointed as Asst.Prof.Dr. to the Istanbul Arel University Dept. of Political Science and Public Administration, in 2012). He is going on his academic study and research freely. ersoykutluk@gmail.com 125 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress siyasilerin kendileri için de fazlasıyla geçerlidir. Politika yapıcılar günümüz siyasal hayatında farklı ve çok boyutlu hadiselerle karşılaşabilmektedirler. Bu olaylar onları neticeleri çok yönlü ve tesirli olabilecek kararlar almak durumunda bırakmaktadır. Bu durum ise politikacılar üzerinde stres oluşturmaktadır. İç ve dış faktörlerin etkileri sonucu oluşan politik stres ile başa çıkılması ve olumsuz tesirlerin dengelenmesi başarıya ulaşılabilmesi için önem arz etmektedir. Bu süreçte psiko-sosyal imkanların ve kaynak havuzunun güçlendirilmesiyle stresle başa çıkma süreci zaman içerisinde belli bir denge profiline kavuşacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Politik Stres, Yönetim, Örgüt, Stresle Başa Çıkma, Seesaw (Tahterevalli) Modeli. Introduction Management phenomenon as old as history reached passing through humanity’s agricultural, industrial and communications revolutions process to management concept and the idea that aims to be modern, rational, effective and efficient. Global trends affect all grounds and countries and also administrative structure and functioning of the countries in today’s world. Politicians, business managers, and all decision-makers should overcome this trend with accurate information and methods. When we look at the science related to management, an interdisciplinary case stands out. Anthropology, sociology, psychology, political sciences, economy, biology, ecology, mathematics and philosophy are between these disciplines. Social and behavioral disciplines especially political science which management is in relationship need to assess with the purpose of performing targets effectively and efficiently3. It can be said that, the essential factor which acts as reflex in the organism that causes functioning of managerial/administrative system is stress. The functions which installed on a system/organization can carry out with the level of knowledge and skills of human factor. Today’s world, the factors that determine the quality of the human factor must be purify from stress or minimizing negative effects of stress beside training and specialization factors. Today, the most important factor which keeps healthy a human is level of stress. But, at the same time stress may be commented as impulsive power. We accept that ‘optimum level of stress’ may be benefit for managers and policymakers. Negative effects of stress occur when exceed point of optimum level of stress. In this article, it is aimed to reach optimal stress level with a new balance model. I. Stress Concept and Stress Perception Richard S. Lazarus gives detailed information us about origins of the stress concept. In the 14th century, the word ‘stress’ was first used in a nontechnical sense to mean “hardship, straits, adversity, or affliction.” In the late 17th century, a physicist-biologist, Robert Hooke made a strong contribution by formulating an engineering analysis of ‘stress’. He scrutinized the practical question of “how man-made structures should be designed to carry heavy loads without collapsing.” His analysis revealed three basic concepts, load, stress, and strain. “Load refers to external forces, such as weight; stress is the area of the bridge’s structure over which 3 Atilla Baransel, Çağdaş Yönetim Düşüncesinin Gelişimi, Volume 1, Second Edition, İstanbul, İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları, 1979, p.56-63; Tamer Koçel, İşletme Yöneticiliği, Eleventh Edition, İstanbul, Arıkan Basım Yayın Dağıtım Ltd. Şti., 2007, p.7. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 126 the load was applied; and strain is the deformation of the structure, produced by the interplay of load and stress.” This approach greatly influenced 20th-century stress and emotion models of stress, which used the conception of load “as an external force exerted on a social, physiological, or psychological system.” Now we use stressor as the external input, and stress response or reaction as the output 4. Walter Bradford Cannon (1871-1945) used the term stress as “a perturbation of somatic homeostasis by external threats that induce a mobilization of bodily resources to contend with the circumstances”5. Hans Selye (1907-1982) recommended the following definition for stress: “Stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand”6. John M. Ivancevich and Michael T. Matterson have described stress as “adoptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any external action, situation or event that places special physical and/or psychological demands upon a person”7. Terry A. Beehr and J. E. Newman have stated stress as “a condition arising from the interaction of people and their jobs and characterised by changes within people that force them to deviate from their normal functioning”8. According to Öztürk, the stress is any factor that may unbalance an organism. Stress can be defined in levels of Biological (for example, cerebral Infarction), psychological (eg, deep guilt sense), sociological (eg, economic crisis, migration). The Stress may occur within the organism's own (eg, perception strongly banned urge from the inside) or may come from external. When the stress factors are dominant on strength of a person, defenses of person and coping facility may be insufficient. This condition is called misbalancing9. The phenomenon of stress is one of the most important factors which affects relationships between people and should be considered to be successful in management. We must know what the stress is and what the sources of stress are, so we can develop the coping ways with stress. We should not put forward for that stress is bad and unwanted due to relating with some negative words like tension, anxiety, oppression, conflict, distress, frustration and slog. Stress in some degree is inevitable for success. In 1952, Bazarus, Deese and Osler had emphasized on impact of different situations on the success. Research that is done for determine circumstantial characteristics and differences, they determined individual differences are as important as changes related to the situation. Jessie Bernard divides stress into two headlines as pleasurable (eustress) and unpleasurable (distress). In fact, distress is a subjective discomfort sense for a person against unlikable postures 10. Stress has described in four levels as mild stress, moderate stress, severe stress and panic. In each of these levels, individual is sensitive against environment. First level of being concerned with the environment is being awake. Being awake shows level of mild stress, 4 Richard S. Lazarus, Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis, New York, Springer Publishing Company, Inc., 2006, p.31-32. 5 Conveys from Cannon; Robert L. Woolfolk, Paul M. Lehrer and Lesley A. Allen, “Conceptual Issues Underlying Stress Management”, Principles and Practice of Stress Management, Paul M. Lehrer, Robert L. Woolfolk, Wesley E. Sime (Edited by), New York, The Guilford Press, 2007, p.6-7. 6 Hans Selye, Stress in Health and Disease, Boston & London, The Butterworth Group, 1976, p.15. 7 Conveys from Ivancevich and Matterson; V. G. Kondalkar, Organizational Behaviour, New Delhi, New Age International Publishers, 2007, p.177. 8 Conveys from Beehr and Newman; Kondalkar, Ibid, p.177. 9 M. Orhan Öztürk, Ruh Sağlığı ve Bozuklukları, Sixth Edition, Ankara, Hekimler Yayın Birliği, 1995, p.14-15. 10 S. Sorias, “Stresle İlgili Kavramlar ve Stresin Psikiyatrik Bozukluklardaki Önemi”, Ege Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, Volume 26, Issue 2, 1987, p.887. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 127 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress individual understands more difficult than before. Individual's skill of connecting and comprehending are reducing in second level of concerning with the environment. In this step, individual can’t pay attention what goings-on around, but individual can notice if another observer point out to condition on live, this shows level of moderate stress. Muscle tension, heart palpitations, stomach complaints and sweating occur in this level. If awkwardness about comprehend to going-on environment increases, stress increases so third level condition arises as severe stress. Individual notices only details and feels unrest of physically and emotionally. Although details are noticed but relations between them are not noticed. In condition of stress too high, move to level of panic, awkwardness occurs about communication and functions, individual cannot come to life even if he or she is stimulated by others11. Human and stress relationship is emphasized on the need to focus on studies about multi disciplines in the context of management fact. In this point, the issue of stress and individual psychology should be emphasized. It should be noted that, in here fact is not decisive alone. The basic thing is personal comment in condition. This commenting realizes on two steps 12: 1-Primary Situational Assessment: “Does this situation threaten my goals or is it neutral or even favorable?” If people have the impression that a situation is a threat, they instantaneously know that things cannot stay the way they are: Either the situation or the acting person himself or herself has to change, and even the anticipation of a need for change may be enough to create stress. 2-Secondary assessment: A second assessment, equally holistic and subconscious, follows the first. This time it comprises a comparison of all available resources with the situational demands: “Will I be able to manage this critical situation?” Depending on how this assessment turns out, different strategies will be applied to deal with the stressful situation. Basic characteristics that play a role in the assessment, mark stress and led to the emergence of conditions that vary person to person are ‘private psychological characteristics’ 13. The key notion is exist of ‘threat’ on mental level in psychological analysis of stress, end of the primary and secondary assessment. In this decision, the person’s perception style of the situation is emerged as fundamental decisive element. Prejudices and perceptions 14 which are gained from our past experiences determine selectivity and preparation with our needs and motives. The important thing for stress is; whether event is perceived as ‘threatening’ by person 11 Yücel Ertekin, Stres ve Yönetim, Ankara, TODAİE, 1993, p.6. Conveys from Lazarus; Michael St.Pierre, Gesine Hofinger and Cornelius Buerschaper, Crisis Management in Acute Care Settings: Human Factors and Team Psychology in a High Stakes Environment, Berlin-Heidelberg & New York, Springer, 2008, p.106. 13 Acar Baltaş and Zuhal Baltaş, Stres ve Başaçıkma Yolları, Twenty Eighth Edition, İstanbul, Remzi Kitabevi, 2012, p.34. 14 Behaviors are derived from needs and steer with motives. Behind of all moves, there is a motive that causes them. These motives are shaped with individual needs and the way of the perception environment. Although there are the gradation of different needs, Maslow’s gradation of needs is widely accepted in psychology. In this gradation, there are physiological/biological needs on the first and the lowest (physiological-safety-love/belonging-esteem-self actualization). However, it is possible to turn to the satisfaction of the complex psychological needs at higher levels after satisfaction of these needs. Hierarchy of needs is the most fundamental element in perception. Human must satisfy his or her needs starting with the bottom step. Human percepts different in accordance with his or her needs even shaped objects of external world (Fred Luthans, Organizational Behavior, Fifth Edition, New York, Mc GrawHill, 1989, p.240-242; Baltaş and Baltaş, Ibid, p.35-36; Ruhet Genç, Profesyonel Yöneticinin Yöntem ve Kavramları, First Edition, Ankara, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2009, p.120-122). 12 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 128 or not. Individual differences are caused by psychological separations, needs and past experiences are not generally current, these are private15. Personality should be handled in this context. Personality is the most characteristic and original entire of the emotional state of people structure, their patterns of behavior, their interests, their abilities and their other psychological characteristics. In the definition of personality, there are ‘self’ reflecting psychological continuity and ‘character’ reflecting individualized characteristics on different personalities. Term of self includes the individual idea and emotions, ideals and capabilities; so and character includes these characteristics turning into action and individual differences 16. Personality can be defined as complex psychological attributes unity that affects an individual’s distinctive behavior patterns in different situations and times. In the definition of personality, the structure and source and relation of personality as the primary purpose and that predicting the behaviors and events based on personality assessment as secondary purpose are discussed17. It is known that there is a close relationship between the results of stressful situations and succeed or fail with different personality and character structure. There may be very different sources of motivation and expectation goals starting from the most fundamental needs to getting the supreme and high saturation goals. Fulfilling the supreme needs that can be called self-realization shapes the character of the individuals, their environment and their education and habits. As it can be seen that there is a link between stress perception and individual psychology. Coping with stress, learning accurate methods, and improving recourses are important to succeed in managing and decision/policy making process. II. Understanding the ‘Political Stress’ Politicians are obliged to make decisions which may give very different result in internal and external politics. Political leaders could take decisions in foreign policy that impacts are very comprehensive as declaration of war, peace negotiations, cooperation between countries, economic sanctions and environmental issues. In such decisions, leaders are influenced by domestic factors, international factors, psychological factors and decision environment. If we focus on the psychological factors that influence the decisions of political leaders beliefs, emotions, personality, leadership style have drawn attention with stress level 18. For example, international crises entail perceived threat and accordingly high levels of stress to politicians. Time constraints and uncertainty are major causes of stress in crisis situations. In such cases stress may cause anxiety. Stress can also effect information process negatively and cause missing the right information and alternatives by politicians. Stress also can cause politicians’ overestimation about capabilities of their opponents. Extreme stress can even cause panic. “Studies have revealed that stress leads to decreased focus, regression to primitive or very elementary decision styles, an increase in errors, and tendencies toward random behavior”19. 15 Baltaş and Baltaş, Ibid, p.37-38. Baltaş and Baltaş, Ibid, p.40-41. 17 Richard J. Gerrig and Philip G. Zimbardo, Psikolojiye Giriş: Psikoloji ve Yaşam, First Edition, Gamze Sart (Translated by), Ankara, Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, 2012, p.407-408. 18 Alex Mintz and Karl Derouen Jr., Understanding Foreign Policy Decision Making, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.3-4. 19 Mintz and DeRouen, Ibid, p.28-29. 16 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 129 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress It is argued that cognitive functioning could deteriorate under stress. Stress gives rise to cognitive errors and biased attitude 20. Time constraints would have a negative impact on decision-making that one of the most important function of policy makers / managers, “A reduction in information search and processing; neglect or denial of important information; using noncompensatory choice strategies; forgetting important data; wrong judgment and evaluation”21. Politicians can live bumpy period during his/her political life. For example they may lose in elections. In such cases, not only politicians but also his family members are involved in this process under stress. This type psychological pressure causes various difficulties in politicians’ private lives 22. Irving Janis identified five major risk factors cause deficient (foreign policy) decisions containing “a forceful leader whom others seek to impress, intense group cohesiveness, isolation and secrecy from others, a lack of clear decision-making procedures, and stress arising from a crisis mentality”23. Many studies indicate that stress has an impact on the decision-making process. In a crisis situation when time is short and the threat is high, sleep deprivation is experienced24. Stress leads decision makers to cognitive rigidity and cause restrictions on creative problemsolving skills. Attention of person contracts in stress conditions. Person under stress could not focus on a subject for a long time. He/She has difficulty in consider multiple alternatives at one time25. It is known that elites (decision makers, legislators, political appointees, politicians etc.) can become more rigid in their views under stress conditions. They quickly and easily believe that “the so-called adversary is in charge” and they should pull the strings. They minimize the options under consideration, and “focus only on the present”26. The political psychology provides informative data in some areas such as terrorism, conflict resolution and crisis that plays an important role in international relations. Crisis situations push leaders to be condemned to predetermined standard operating procedures. In these circumstances, the decision maker may have to implement decision strategies based on “preplanned war games”. In times of crisis, extreme or prolonged stress creates obstacles to make accurate and appropriate action of individuals. Catastrophic and traumatic events (war, terrorist action etc.) cause stress because this events uncontrollable, unpredictable, and filled with ambiguity. If we put it another way “stressors that we don't anticipate and can't control are worse than those that we expect and can try to accommodate in certain ways”. Actions we 20 Dan Zakay, “The Impact of Time Perception Processes on Decision Making under Time Stress”, Time Pressure and Stress in Human Judgment and Decision Making, Ola Svenson and A. John Maule (Edited by), New York, Springer Science+Business Media, 1993, p.60. 21 Zakay, Ibid, p.60. 22 Spyros D. Orfanos, “The Spelling and Seduction of Michael Dukakis”, Politics and Psychology: Contemporary Psychodynamic Perspectives, Joan Offerman-Zuckerberg (Edited by), Brooklyn, New York, Plenum Press, 1991, p.75-76. 23 Jost, John T. and Jim Sidanius, “Political Psychology: An Introduction”, Political Psychology: Key Readings, (Ed. John T.Jost and James Sidanius), New York, Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Books, Inc.,2004, p.10. 24 Rose McDermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, The United States of America, The University of Michigan Press, 2004, p.129. 25 McDermott, Ibid, p.129. 26 Margaret G. Hermann, “Political Psychology as a Perspective in the Study of Politics”, Political Psychology, Kristen Renwick Monroe (Edited by), New Jersey & London, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,. 2002, p.52. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 130 thought they are risky and would be terrible are also causes stress “for example, the series of hijackings on September 11 made many people more afraid to fly because they could not determine what that event meant for the future safety of airline travel”. Especially such terrorist acts constitute high stress on both humans and decision-makers. Because “people do not know what to expect next”27. If we want to better understand a political leader, we need to know something about his/her personality and background. “A leader’s background can be influenced by several factors: political beliefs, political style, motivation for seeking office, responses to stress, manner of recruitment, amount of past political experience, and political climate”28. James David Barber carried out influential studies on U.S. presidents. He argues that personality shapes behavior. According to Barber, “a leader’s behavior is patterned by a combination of his character, worldview, and style”29. Personality traits are reflected in the implementation of political leaders. Jimmy Carter’s grandiose and narcissistic personality reflected in his decision during the crisis emerged in Afghanistan resulting from Soviet aggression. Idiosyncratic personality characteristics can be decisive on the results in a crisis situation30. According to Winter, “power changes people... being the target of others’ power can certainly have traumatic effects”31. Barber’s remarkable hypothesis suggests that “a politician attempts to recreate the conditions that brought him his first success all throughout the rest of his political career (even when the environment changes)”32. Correct decision/judgment is considered to be the outcome of complicated information processing based on “an extensive information search, an understanding of probabilities and the rules of logic, an exhaustive consideration and reconsideration of alternative choices, flexibility, open-mindedness, an ability to understand and appreciate other viewpoints, resistance to conformity and obedience pressures, and so on”. Most of the political decision, especially making under stress, does not meet these criteria 33. There is a bond between the charismatic political leader and their supporters. By way of this bond individuals can give their own control to the leaders (by proxy). He is deemed more able ‘to cope with environmental stresses’ successfully. It is one of the most important reason of this confidence34. Climates and attitudes of international politic psychology are very vital to understand better states and NGO's policies and individual actors’ behaviors too. Cooperation and governance methods and capacities are very important to solve the accumulated complex 27 McDermott, Ibid, p.151-174. McDermott, Ibid, p.216. 29 McDermott, Ibid, p.222-223. 30 Betty Glad and Brian Whitmore, “Jimmy Carter and the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: A Psychological Perspective”, Politics and Psychology: Contemporary Psychodynamic Perspectives, Joan Offerman-Zuckerberg (Edited by), Brooklyn, New York, Plenum Press, 1991, p.141. 31 David G. Winter, “An Intellectual Agenda for Political Psychology”, Political Psychology, Kristen Renwick Monroe (Edited by), New Jersey & London, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,. 2002, p.388. 32 McDermott, Ibid, p.224. 33 Peter Suedfeld, “Postmodernism, Identity Politics, and Other Political Influences in Political Psychology”, Political Psychology, Kristen Renwick Monroe (Edited by), New Jersey & London, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,. 2002, p.323. 34 John L. Sullivan, Wendy M. Rahn and Thomas J. Rudolph, “The Contours of Political Psychology: Situating Research on Political Information Processing”, Thinking About Political Psychology, James H. Kuklinski (Edited by), New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p.34. 28 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 131 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress matters. More than discrimination tendency, interdependency process is focused on real issues of this particular sphere of human beings. It is known that, political actors and managers carry out their activities within a particular organization. External factors that affecting decision-makers should also be considered with their psychological state. Leader’s ability to balance internal and external pressures brings him success 35. III. Organizational Stress Factors and Their Effects Organization and stress get a great meaning when they come side by side. The idea of the formation of organizational restructuring comes from the idea of not meeting all individual needs and desires. People see that people need the help of others to meet their needs due to lack of ability, strength, time or stamina. When unity is created, much more work than a single person can do is noticed. The basic idea that organization concept based on is instituting coordination of efforts with cooperation. Furthermore, the presence of some goals that can be achieved and compromising on these goals are required to be effective coordination. The concept of organization also based on the idea that is realization of some common targets with coordinating activities. Division of labor is made among organizations, if a function is need for more than one person. The concept of division of labor and coordination is also tightly linked to each other. The concept of organization can be defined in accordance with this information as: “it is the rational coordination of the activities of a group people for carrying out an open and common purpose in the hierarchy of authority and responsibility”36. According to Lysons, there are two aspects of organization. One of them is ‘the formal organization’ and the other is ‘the informal organization’. The formal organization is ‘the tip of the iceberg’. Policies and procedures, spans of control, organization charts, organization mission statements, task definitions and descriptions, production efficiency and effectiveness measures are the formal aspect of the organization. The informal aspect of organization is at the bottom of the iceberg. Emotional feelings, needs and desires, personal and group goals and perceptions, personal animosities and friendships, grapevines, group norms and sentiments etc are the informal aspect of the organization. “The informal organization arises from the interaction of people working in the organization, their psychological and social needs, and the development of groups with their own relationships and norms of behavior, irrespective of those defined within the formal structure”37. These determinations show the importance of the organizational psychology and the social structure of the organization. Managers/administrators who want to achieve the organizational goals should consider interpersonal relationships and individual/personnel psychology. Diminishing stress and increasing social skills will empower the organization. The subjects as assessed work-related stress factors can be grouped under the following headings; workload, change, evaluation, job characteristics and problems from monotony 38: 1. Workload: Many aspects of job contain stress factors (stressors). Excessive workload stress is the leading of these factors. Excessive workload is divided as terms of quality and 35 McDermott, Ibid, p.222. Ertekin, Ibid, p.6-7. 37 Conveys from Lysons; Laurie J. Mullins, Management & Organisational Behaviour, Ninth Edition, England, Pearson Education Limited, 2010, p.94-95. 38 Ertekin, Ibid, p.50-56. 36 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 132 quantity by psychologists. Quantitative workload is understood as doing a lot of work and finishing in a certain period of time. And qualitative workload is understood as accomplishing a very difficult job in a certain time. 2. Change: Other faced stress factor is related with change during doing a job. If individuals enjoy jobs which exciting to them, they are affected much less by stress. But, if they consider stress as a spooky factor, they can be adversely affected by stress. 3. Evaluation: Another stress factor is business evaluation related with job. With evaluation that is subjective and inadequate, a person lost jobs or may not reach higher positions so evaluation is effective in an individual's career and organizational position. 4. Relation between job characteristics and its stress (role conflict): Some jobs are more stressful due to nature of them than others. Individuals who faced with stressful condition are influenced by environmental factors (external) and (internal) factors sourced from them. Workrelated stress can eliminate control of individual in environment and reduce individual's sense of self-confidence. Also; at this point; sense of duty is one of the individual characteristics that is needed to focus. Duty is related with sense that a person makes his or her job best. The height of sense of duty can reduce consisted problems. If individual exhibits type A behavior, he or she is attracted attention his or her characteristics such as impetuosity, impatience, be exposed to time pressure, sense of challenge the responsibility. The stress factors which are related directly with job represent environmental conditions which give rise to reaction. Work-related stress factors are directly related to various business and roles that are made by people in an organization. These are closely related to situations such as ambiguity of role, conflict of role, distress of duty, excessive workload, development of career, bearing responsibility. 5. Monotony Business and Stress: Different business groups do their own work in their unique order. Rhythm reduces work accidents. But monotony having a more different meaning reduces automation business efficiency, sensitivity and attention. Monotony causes to corruption, deviation and injuries in other several cognitive functions (such as perception, attention, memory, motor performance). It is seen that the reasons of stress which is one of the most serious problems in management has resources related to business, organizations and individuals. Individuals feel alienated them to the job in the bureaucratized organizational structures. On the one hand, extreme specialization and business segmentation; on the other hand, the employee who have difficulty in communicating between increased organizational steps, are under pressure. The other cause of work-related stress is extreme demands of administrator. New demands imbalance individual and prolong the duration of actual work. So; this is caused that job move to home and new problems occur in the individual’s private life39. Fred Luthans collects sources of stress in the organization under four different groups. Sources of stress are related to organizational policies, the organization's structural characteristics, physical conditions and organizational processes. As long as organizations grow and have a complex structure, sources of stress affecting individuals also increase so situation arises which organization can control more difficultly40. 39 Ceyhan Aldemir, Alpay Ataol and Gönül Budak Solakoğlu, Personel Yönetimi, First Edition, İzmir, Barış Yayınları, 1993, p.182-183. 40 Luthans, Ibid, p.198-199. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 133 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress Mc Grath puts forward that effects of stress in organizations usually could arise from different these sources 41: 1-Task-related stress (job’s complexity and uncertainty and excess workload) 2-Role-related stress (conflict, uncertainty, work intensity) 3-Stress from the behavior environment (the impact of crowds, etc.) 4-Stress from the physical environment (extreme cold, the presence of opposing forces etc.) 5-Stress from the social environment (interpersonal disputes, stress related to private life, isolation and loneliness, etc.) 6-An individual's self-related stress (an individual's state of anxiety, detection order...). Stress plays an active role in environment of economic and political uncertainty and an environment which has rapid technological change. Interpersonal demands that create pressure among the workers come into play as stress resources like task and role demands. As an end of the potential sources stress, the employee’s family problems in own personal life, economic problems and natural persons features are effective as personal factors. One of the interesting features of the source of stress is the increase exponentially. Each new and perpetual stress source increases the individual’s stress level. It may be like a last straw when it is added to high levels of stress42. Image 1: Tension Sources, Individual Variables, Relationships between the Results of Symptoms and Tension43 41 Conveys from Mc Grath; Ertekin, Ibid, p.13. Stephen P. Robbins and Timothy A. Judge, Örgütsel Davranış, First Edition, İnci Erdem (Translated by and Eds.), Ankara, Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık, 2012, p.609-611. 43 Conveys from Sekiou ve Brodin; Aldemir, Ataol and Solakoğlu, Ibid, p.186. 42 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 134 Tension sources in individual, individual variables, the results of symptoms and tension are given above. In the light of these data, managers and personnel can see chart clearly and find an opportunity minimizing the source and effect of tension for increasing efficiency. Physiological stress arises among individuals appear when a threat with the scarcity of resources, emerging loss of resources and the failure of efforts to new access to resources. The central element in loss and gain cycle is ‘understanding how people can reaction, response to stress’ in both cases. According to this theory, it is discussed that job/work/occupational stress and inadequate coping processes cause loss of resources. There is a progressing of spiral developing as much as how a reduced resource pool of individual at the end of this dynamic process; resources will be reducing more rapidly and burn-out will occur. However, this process does not follow the one-way cruise. Spiral of gain may affects in the opposite direction to increasing resources in the opposite direction of the spiral of loss and the process of wasting syndrome by promoting cross-reaction. The process of coping that will be emerged with more consistent and more effective participation leads to both the enrichment of resources and increasing of gain44. Image 2: The Spiral of Sources Gains and Losses That this model is designed in a spiral arises from assuming that both losses and gains may be in narrower distances and smaller volumes. This approach that is highly likely inspired from Watson and Crick’s core model of the DNA double helix in genetics was formed with the prediction that more information, effect and response may emerge in less and a small volume. A process that is gradually narrowing may turn to similarly a process that is gradually growth and enrichment. Undoubtedly important things are the opportunities and resources of social environment and the purpose and tool balance of all the management and organization as far as individual attitudes, perceptions and behaviors. If tools and mechanisms that can be realized targets can be evaluated in a good way by a successful management, losses and narrowness can be prevented. 44 Petra Buchwald, Nicola K. Schorn and Stefanie Morgenroth, “Resource Gains and Losses in Teachers”, Stress and Anxiety: Application to Education and Health, Petra Buchwald, Kathleen A. Moore and Tobias Ringeisen (Eds.), Berlin, Logos Verlag, 2011, p.71-73. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 135 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress In this context, to understand the leadership style of the manager is important for personnel. “Learning to live with other people is one of the most stressful aspects of life.” “The relationships among co-workers can provide valuable support or, conversely, can be a huge source of stress. Stress among co-workers can arise from the competition and personality conflicts usually described as office politics”45. Decision-makers who want to reach to the organizational goals could accept psychological dimension of the human factor as a unique area. This understanding could make a contribution to lowering the impacts and consequences of crisis/problems to an acceptable level on the organization and personnel. “When managers who run the strategic management process, make safe estimates thereby foresee the crises and conflict areas, and having a flexible organizational psychology to accommodate to this conditions could provide to attain the objectives”46. When looking to manage based in the organizations and stress relationships, it is possible to make the distinction between managerial stress factors in the organizational boundaries and stress factors which caused by external interventions to organization. Image related to this case is seen below: Image 3: Managerial Stress Recourses 47 45 John Arnold and others, Work Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace, Fourth Edition, England, Pearson Education Limited, 2005, p.405-407. 46 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz and Ersoy Kutluk, “Stratejik Yönetim Sürecinde Krizler ve Örgüt Üzerindeki Psikolojik Etkileri”, Ufuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Volume 4, Issue 7, 2015, pp.21-22. 47 Conveys from Blau; Ertekin, Ibid, p.16. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 136 The boundaries of influence and intervention which may come from outside with its own internal structure and functioning of the organization will emerge as a result of own decisions, actions and operations of manager. The manager’s personality profile, perception and vision and accumulation may play a decisive role. Organizational change and stress management plays a decisive role on both understanding of the change dynamics and controlling the individual and organizational stress. The nature of the workforce, technology, economic shocks, competition, social trends and world politics is changing through and through48. In fact, seeing change as a strategic concept means confirming prevailing of dominant hegemonic mentality implicitly. At this point, it should be reminded that change is tactical concept. We primarily concentrate on the sources of stress that are work and job related, as you read. It is very important to remember that all types of life problems and events and changes and transformations can lead to stress. Main point is to handle the different situations according to real and rational methods. How is it going on and in which way the travel goes? Whether our problem solving technics and improvement of weld pool and decrease stress or our weld pool is getting smaller and than face burn out. IV. Challenges and Opportunities in the Context of Social and Psychological Codes There are the differences among personals about be affected stress and it is known that people who work the same work side by side are not affected by stress at the same level. If a person like his or her job and get a great satisfaction, he or she is protected from the harmful effects of stress. In contrast, if a person does not get satisfaction from his or her job, he or she is vulnerable to harmful effects of the stress. It should be noted, two factors reducing stress; are work-related independence with higher job satisfaction and the case of using power. These are not the only factors that cause individual differences. Other factors such as social support, ability to do job well and personality can be summarized 49: Social Support: Social support mechanisms related to the individual’s family and social environment is another factor that occurs a sensitivity to stress. Individual who perceives alone himself or herself in social relations considering a rich person are more vulnerable to stress. On the other hand a person's health status is effective in stress sensitivity. It is known that a person who is in good health is affected less that a person who has a bas health situation. Ability to do the job well: Making a good job, to be successful, and be able to finish and the needed skills in this issue is effective on the resistance of people to job stress. While employees who have a high ability consider a work as easier and stress free, others who have low ability consider a work as difficult and more stressful. Personality: Studies on personality traits show that some personality traits make difficult to fight against stress. They are listed as people who have dominant hostility sense, people who blame themselves in every condition, and people who have overly sensitive and emotional senses. On the other hand, those who have dominant egoistic personality trait consider events as either very good or very bad (‘all or nothing’ rule), and those who are inadequate in relation to the environment and are called childish fail to cope with stress. These properties and behavior extend adaptation process of human against stress and prevent the 48 49 Robbins and Judge, Ibid, p.590-592. Ertekin, Ibid, p.35-39. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 137 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress establishment of a healthy balance. External conditions are not fixed and completely taking control of these conditions is not seemed possible. However, recognizing conditions allrounded, being flexible towards the changes, creating the most appropriate one for ourselves and our environment are needed 50. Knowing the personality traits of employees is important for management's success and fighting against stress. Personality; is an expression of distinctive and unique condition of human; and it is unity of behavior pattern, feelings, abilities and psychological characteristics. Especially A and B type personality are discriminated in the literature51. A type personality is described by Friedman and Rosenman as “it observable any person and it is a actionary and emotional complex situation of a very much achieving success goals which feed desire to fight aggressively. Humans prioritize their condition with this attitudinizing against other objects and persons who can confront”52. People having an extrovert or introvert personalities is important for stress and fighting with it. Introverted people prefer autonomy in tension and conflict situations. They are self-directed intellectuals, artists, idealistic, emotional and passive. Extroverted people are active, friendly and work-oriented. Both of them interact socially in an adequate level. Latter kinds of people are affected very little from the tension and feel anxiety because they perceive that problems do not originate from themselves but from environment; but former kind of people may be under the severe stress. However, if a very intense tense appears, extroverted people can feel tense 53. The process of dealing with situations that create stress is called ‘coping’. This process takes two forms. In the first, person will change ‘specific’ problem or find a new way to avoid it in the future. This is called problem-focused coping. In the second, person may make an effort to ease feelings which combines with a situation creates stress. This process is called the emotion-focused coping. In fact, when many people face with a situation that creates stress, they resort to both of them54. The situations of coping with stress are directly related to contriving style, intensification style, culture and social fabric and personal attitudinizing. At this point, rational or emotional approach can be activated. Two basic methods may be concerned for coping with stress techniques. The first of these individual coping strategies; the other is organizational coping strategies. Individual coping strategies are55: 1- Exercise: It is discussed that people of all ages might be more successful in combating stress doing activities56 such as walking, jogging, and swimming. 50 Baltaş and Baltaş, Ibid, p.41-43. Type A personality traits: Always in motion; walking fast; eating fast; speaking fast; impatient; trying to do more than two things at a time; cannot overcoming leisure; obsessed with numbers; measuring success as a quantitative; aggressive; competitive and feeling constantly under time pressure themselves constitute their characteristic. Type B personality traits: they have some characteristics such as not worried about time; patient; rigid and non-crusher; playing for fun not to win; which is in a comfort away from guilt; without the red line which feels under pressure; having soft style and being not hasty. It is considered that A type people have a more risk about suffering from heart diseases than type B people. Type A personalities are more successful than type B personalities, it is emphasized that A type personalities do not have superiority in top managers (Luthans, Ibid, p.202). Because of the fact that Type B personalities are more patient and have a broad overview, a significant superiority of type A personality cannot be discussed the terms of compliance with this location. 52 Conveyer Luthans, Ibid, p.201. 53 Ertekin, Ibid, p.83. 54 Rita L. Atkinson and others, Psikolojiye Giriş, Fourth Edition, Yavuz Alogan (Translated by), Ankara, Arkadaş Yayınevi, 2008, p.509. 55 Luthans, Ibid, p.207-210. 51 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 138 2-Relaxation techniques: Relaxation techniques such as biofeedback and meditation are effective to eliminate stress and cope with prolonged stressful situations 57. 3-Self-control: Some specific control mechanisms that people can develop its own may play an important role. 4-Cognitive therapy: Some clinical psychologists study on coping with stress developing rational sensory models beside self-control techniques. 5-Creating Net-works: Researches related to social psychology show social support needs of people. And, it is detected that trusted emphatic colleagues and friends groups play role on the formation of trust. Work-related stress factors become chronic in the process and if they are not supported and fed by sufficiently individual and social resources, they may expose with wasting syndrome which is after the resistance. In order to prevent the wasting syndrome, coping strategies, opportunities and resources need to be enriched and strengthened. Giving place to the model which is related to coping with stress and burnout syndrome will be beneficial. Image 4: Theoretical framework of the study58 How the motivation of the acquisition of new resources increases in the process of coping with retirement stress for older couples, process of coping with stress will also be successful to this extent and a positive stress will uncover a situation called eustress. Loss cycle will become a part of activity in the case of lack of new resources and investment and so disstress namely negative stress will appear. In these processes, the decisive thing in gains and 56 “However, most people have some coping strategies that are unhelpful, such as drinking, smoking, or eating too much as a way of comforting themselves” (Gladeana McMahon, No More Stress: Be Your Own Stress Management Coach, First Published, London, Karnac Ltd., 2011, p.16). 57 Taking place ‘relax exercise’ recommended 5 or 7 times in a day is helpful. These bodily movements that are easy to applications can be easily made every day in the home, workplace or the road. (In this technique which is made in open air if possible but is made everywhere easily, a deep breathe is taken and it is bated, it is counted until 3 and breathe is expired. If this activity repeats every day 5 or 7 time, it leads to very effective results in terms of relaxing). 58 Petra Buchwald and Nicola K. Schorn, “Burnout in Student Teachers”, Stress and Psychosocial Resources, Pagona Roussi, Eleni Vassilaki and Krzysztof Kaniasty (Eds.), Berlin, Logos Verlag, 2008, p.24. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 139 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress losses is the availability and assessment of present resources. If which sides that are loss and gain preponderate, positive or negative stress will manifest in connection with this case 59. There is an interesting determination in the program of coping stress and related to similar situations for youth living in rural areas: a more productive coping process occurs and the risk of depression decreases depending on the degree of resources owned and its height. As for that the appropriation of resources is less to what extent, the non-productive coping processes was pointed out in this extend so a higher risk of depression is faced with 60. Image 5: Resource acquisition and loss in study61 Research about coping against stress and burn-out syndromes on college students shows that exhaustion or burn out appears in the situation of continuing chronic job stress and limiting renewable resources. Burn out can be seen as a combination of chronic job stress and insufficient dealing process with decreasing and cycle of the depletion of the development resources. Going towards a healthy gain cycle is observed in cases of successful coping strategies and resources sufficiently favorable62. Availability of different sources in the coping stress process will be inversely proportional to the burn out syndrome. Otherwise, it is seen that scarcity of resources will remove opportunities that are coping with stress and in this situation exhaustion will be in a consistent relationship with burn-out syndrome. Taking control of the sources of stress, eliminating it if possible, getting rid of its effect, trying to increase resistance of people against stress making them more powerful and equipped are targets of organizational stress management 63. The causes of stress in a work are not known of ‘What's the next step?’ and ‘how to do?’ It is known that the struggles to rise in administrative levels lead to stress on managers at 59 Buchwald and Schorn, Ibid, p.21-24. Chelsea Eacott and Erica Frydenberg, “Building Coping Resources of Rural Youth”, Stress and Anxiety: Application to Adolescence, Job Stress and Personality, Kathleen A. Moore and Petra Buchwald (Eds.), Berlin, Logos Verlag, 2009, p.32-33. 61 Buchwald and Schorn, Ibid, p.47. 62 Buchwald and Schorn, Ibid, p.45-47. 63 Şule Aydın and Ali Şahin Örnek, Kriz ve Stres Yönetimi, Second Edition, Ankara, Detay Yayıncılık, 2008, p.214228. 60 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 140 all levels and it adversely affects the health of them. Managers should have knowledge about some methods that can reduce stress 64: 1-Solid and stable hierarchical layouts should be created and this should be supported and controlled with a good personnel system. 2-Managers who esteem not rising the way they want in managerial levels should assess themselves honestly and neutrally. 3-They should effort to become more conformist in managerial tasks and roles. 4-Manager should know themselves and they should tell committed works, encountered difficulties and environmental limitations correctly and they should benefit from praise, should be able to open the way for the rise. According to Gerald Kushel, managers should organize effective thoughts for specific purposes. Seeking “good stress, not toxic distress” is one of ‘The Ten Effective Thinking Imperatives’65. Byrne and Barling emphasize that project leaders need to understand how well goals are understood by team members. “Situations with unclear goals can lead to higher levels of employee stress”66. According to Fred Luthans’s model which is developed about the job stress and contains stress factors originating organization, strategies that can be applied for this issue may be these67: 1-To create a supportive organizational atmosphere: organizational atmosphere which is inflexible and not suitable with personality is the stress factor on its own. Strategies that can overcome this situation may convert the organizational structure to status that include existing participation68 in decision-making processes and occurring communication flow to upper levels in the most appropriate way. This kind of changes in structure and process might create a more supportive organizational atmosphere for workers and may prevent or reduce job stress. 2- Enrichment of task (job) design: Job enrichment is occurred with development of factors related to the content of the job (area of responsibility, approval authority, increasing the opportunities for success, providing development opportunities), also it is occurred with improving the basic characteristics of the task (possibility of acquiring different skills, description and the importance of task, capability to make autonomous decisions and feedback system); therefore, positive progress can be recorded in the aspects of motivational state, experience, sense of responsibility etc. Enriched job design will remove stress factors arising from regular and routine activity settings. It is considered that all individuals react positively to 64 Conveys from Norfolk; Ertekin, Ibid, p.32. Gerald Kushel, The Inside Track to Successful Management, London, Thorogood, 2003, p.100. 66 Alyson Byrne and Julian Barling, “Leadership and Project Teams”, The Psychology And Management Of Project Teams, François Chiocchio, E. Kevin Kelloway and Brian Hobbs (Edited by), New York, Oxford University Press, 2015, p.140. 67 Luthans, Ibid, p.210-212. 68 Jerrold Greenberg also emphasizes the importance of participation. According to Greenberg “One of the factors of the workplace and of the organization’s modus operandi that is related to stress is the degree of participation”. He says “The person who reports high participation shows: low psychological strain; low role ambiguity; high utilization of administrative skills and responsibility; good working relations (with others); positive attitudes toward work; high production” (Jerrold S. Greenberg, Comprehensive Stress Management, Twelfth Edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, 2011, p.327). 65 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 141 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress enriching task design. This situation may have the incremental effect of job stress for workers who do not have growth expectations and/or are afraid of making mistakes. 3-Clarifying organizational roles and minimization of conflict: role conflict and ambiguity in role was identified as the main individual stress factors at first. For the success employee, task should be cleaned of all the uncertainty that preventing understanding of it with revealing expectations of every works clearly, sharing of information about that business, providing the needed support. 4-Producing a career development path and plan and providing an effective consultation: organizations show a seasonal and temporary interest in career planning and staff development traditionally. Individuals are obligated to decide alone about career progression and strategies or utmost they listen to fatherly advice of chief time to time. This situation is similar with that trainer who consults a lot of student in a big university tries to interested in hundreds of names which cannot be separated from each other in the computer. These are some effects of stress-based problems in organizations: centralization; absence of long range planning; decrease in innovation; scapegoating; resistance to change; increased labour turnover; lowered morale; loss of credibility of senior management; conflict. In this work environment, levels of creativity can suffer 69. Time management is one of the used effective methods for coping with stress. Effective time management can alleviate some stress70. The identification of priorities, adherence to them, and not wasting time with needless works of others, delegating employees who have sufficient knowledge and skills are necessary for a successful time management application 71. Stress experienced in certain tasks that has certain starting and ending times is mostly improve the performance of people72. There is a research on museum directors conducted by Puffer and Brakefield: this research show that doing simple duties prevents a low level of stress and doing difficult duties prevents a high level of stress. According to the study; sales managers who are more cultured and do simple duty are more effective in sales management than those who are less cultured and do simple duty. Image that summarizes the process of coping with stress is showed below. The stress-related steps are presented from beginning to end in this image: 69 Ashley Weinberg, Valerie J. Sutherland and Cary Cooper, Organizational Stress Management: A Strategic Approach, First Published, Great Britain, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, p.108-109. 70 Brian Lomas, Stress and Time Management, First Published, Great Britain, Rowmark Limited, 2000, p.18. 71 Öznur Aşan and Eren Miski Aydın, Örgütsel Davranış, Halil Can (Eds.), İstanbul, Arıkan Basım Yayım Dağıtım, 2006, p.256-257. 72 McDermott, Ibid, p.173. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 142 Image 6: The process of coping with stress73 Factors which cause the formation of efficient working environment in the field of management science are discussed. Attracting more and more attention in recent years ‘humanization of working life’ issue is important. Measures put forward in the context of humanization of working life could include74: 1-The existence of the necessary conditions for that a business is made reliable and at will in the short and the long term 2-Being doable business without causing any somatic disorders that require treatment in humans 3-Not constituting business an obstacle for individuals feeling good in the psychic aspect and enhancing job satisfaction 4-Contributing business to development of individual’s personality 5-Acceptability of the business in terms of suitability of the situation of employees by individuals and communities (if we pay attention, it is said that especially 2, 3 and 4 of these criteria is related to job stress, administrators should actualize remedial application) If you look at stressful cases, you can see lack of information first and insufficient experience second. In this picture problem is clear. The more you learn the more you solve the problems. But stress in politics is a quite different from other stress producing factors. That is why we intended to unveil politically motivates stress occasions. A politician faces many problems in his life. Before the politic system he must care remarkable check and balance system in his mind and heart and behaviors. In the beginning enlargement of scala is not so effective or to some extend can be tolerable but it is getting heavier and stimulates unpredictable results in time. Symptoms have been converting diseases day by day unless you have not understood them truly. This people govern us so that we will be affected also with this unseen stress virus. As a matter of fact there is a stress cycle in community too. 73 Conveys from Puffer and Brakefield; Ertekin, Ibid, p.61. Mustafa Yaşar Tınar ve Bahattin Taylan, “Çalışma Yaşamının İnsancıllaştırılması Konusunda Türkiye’deki Öncelikler”, 2. Ulusal Ergonomi Kongresi (Adana, 23-26 Mayıs 1989), Ankara, Milli Prodüktivite Merkezi, 1989, p.60-71. 74 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 143 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress V. Optimal Stress Level Contemporary managers are in the opinion of presenting services as fast, cheap, efficient and quality at the appropriate time and place. Increasing the quality or production of service depends on primarily the human element beside other elements. Effectiveness of employees to what extent is explained with the relationship between stress and productivity levels. This relationship of stress with job performance is known as reversed U. Productivity in image which is given below according to this relationship, is in optimum condition when stress on workers are in moderate condition. If the stress is too much or too little, efficiency declines. Manager who is overwhelmed with work or is not ready for this work is in the ascent or descent position on reversed U curve but he or she is not on the optimal (most appropriate) efficiency region. Being employees and managers in this area generally is seen required for success. Being stress level on efficiency region shown in the diagram has importance. Some precautions such as reorganization of work, stress planning, and personnel recruitment for delegation might be put into practice in this issue. If individuals realized that faced situation is tense, they raise the level of stress. The level of the stress returns to normal with overcoming of situations that cause stress. People always prefer to stay on stress levels which are more appropriate to them 75. Some of the positive effects of an optimum stress load on performance are expressed in the YerkesDodson Law76. According to Yerkes-Dodson Law; a certain level of excitement is necessary to achieve good results in a job. However, if this level is exceeded, success reduces, concern arises, and fatigue and errors are increased77. Image 7: Reversed U relation78 A different modeling about reversed U relation was developed by Skinner and Mersham. Some stress events can give you happiness whereas in some disaster situations, unhappiness table may arise. People have different peak performance in the face of amount of stress. This 'eustress' (for positive stress) is a valid state. Too much or too little stimulus can 75 Ertekin, Ibid, p.62-63. James Campbell Quick and others, Preventive Stress Management in Organizations, Washington, DC, American Psychological Association, 1997, p.4-5. 77 Aşan and Aydın, Ibid, p.254. 78 Conveyer Ertekin, Ibid, p.62. 76 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 144 lead to negative stress. Negative stress is known as ‘distress’. There is also the cumulative property of stress. Sometimes small stresses lead to serious negative stress thereby accumulate79. Image 8: The relationship between Eustress (positive stress) and Distress (negative 80 stress) When the process of stress was examined in terms of the management, balance, restraint, stability and so called optimum point level is the position of that the success, happiness and satisfaction are sustained. The minority or majority of this level is resulted as the poorness and reduction of the performance in the administration profile. VI. In the Pursuit of the Balance of Administration and the New Model Attempt: Seesaw Model The factor that makes this system healthy is the regular operation of the recent balance. This operation is in the shape of pendulum move. When the balance that is result of this move is broken, trouble indicators are demonstrated and the axis of the balance becomes unbalanced. Stress resulting from the personal perceptions in a general way, despite the differences of the levels of perceptions, exists from this pendulum. In the fast change of atmosphere of nowadays, the intensity and destruction of the causes of the stress are so obvious. In this modern age in which the balance always exists in different levels, (or possible to say the post-modern age) for the healthier life, the people always need to follow the balance level sand or need to form the balance in the rhythm of the of the pendulum move81. In the organization, a manager in the position of the locomotive carries all the responsibility of the business. The heaviness of this responsibility can increase or decrease according to the level of the personal success. The level of stress of the manager is generally determined – if the other factors are insulated- by the personal capability and the success of the processing of this capability. The success of the managers whose capability keep the organization longer, can be possible through the supply of materials such as technical, 79 Chris Skinner and Gary Mersham, Disaster Management: A Guide to Issues Management and Crisis Communication, First Published, New York, Oxford University Press, 2002, p.135-136. 80 Skinner and Mersham, Ibid, p.136. 81 Mehmet H. Korkusuz, Kamu Yönetiminde Stres Algısı, İstanbul, Hayat Yayıncılık, 2012, p.216. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 145 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress economical and humanistic ones. To provide the accessories to the manager who we have to admit his capability because he is in the position of the administration in an organization is seen as the way to minimize the manager stress. The manager gains the meaningfulness within the organization. What expects from a manager is his ‘public sphere’ that is given to him related to the organization. As that ‘private sphere’ that is unrelated to the organization is expected to be purified from the stress and do not reflect it to the organization is expected from himself, to expect the minimization of the factors of the stress in the public sphere is the right of the manager, as well. To provide this, there should be a healthy exit way that the manager does not get stuck in between his private life and the organization activities. The manager stays in the balance and keep fit between the private life and the organizational structure through the foundation of a mechanism that the roles support each other positively 82. To mention about the seesaw model that can be encountered in real life is useful here. Whoever gets on the seesaw alone, he/she always stands on the ground. A German adage that is “There is no right to fall down for the one who is on the ground” (Vom Boden fällt man nicht) reflects this situation. The basic parameters of the seeking of the balance that is the basis of the development of the administration and the administrator are offered here in the shape of the model “Seesaw”: Image 9: Looking at the Dynamic Stability In the administrative stress: Seesaw Model 83 82 83 Korkusuz, Ibid, p.217 Korkusuz, Ibid, p.223. The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 Mehmet Hişyar Korkusuz - Ersoy Kutluk 146 A successful leader can improve the stress levels resulting from the inner and outer factors through the “stress learning and the education of the stress” that he performs as active and goal-directed towards an active accord and the dynamic balance point. It is possible that the inner and outer factors can be delivered to a certain decision point via the conceived, perceived, interpreted, organized and united attempts as well as the practices that are formed by an active combination and tension84. According to Heider, there are 2 basic motives in the humans: They are the motives that are the formation of a consistent as well as the compatible remark and the controlling the environment. One of the justifications of the satisfaction of them is the capability to predict the other people’s behaviors. The key factor here is the capability to make sense of which tendencies are behind the people’s behaviors. In order to predict and check what is going on in our environment, there is need for the constitution of the jurisdiction and the opinions about the inner dispositions of the others85. In the real world that consists of ones spoken to, we face with the impact or the interactions of infinite factors. Historical, social, environmental as well as personal features, characteristics and preferences indistinctly show us the picture of the moment that we live. The entire of the picture and the connection of sense become clearer. Shortly, we can describe the matter of the administration as the formation of the balanced, effective and successful relations between the people, administration and the sources. In this point, actually the human is on the core of the relations between all the other humanhuman, human-society and human- nature relations. The production services of the people reaches to the scale factor of the civilization through the construction of a socio-politic system via the culture and economy. In this manner, every administration forms one of the milestones of a certain civilization project. In the race of the civilization, people and the administrations are racing with each other, as well86. In this civilization race, ‘the key’ is ‘a successful administration and the administrator’ who can open the gates of the progress and development with this key. Conclusion The stress is called as the ‘disease of the age’. But everywhere and every time, there is always stress. The ‘zero stress’ means death in a way. The hurtless impact of the stress energizes the people. The leaders try to increase the productivity of the staff through minimizing the harmful effects resulting from the stress. These attempts cause to come up the term of stress management. Generally, stress is the collection of psychological and physiological responses that emerges when the desires overcome the resources and capabilities of the people to response and also that the personal features and psychological processes indirectly affect. If the stress is not occurred, motivation and the creativeness cannot be happened. Because living means to face with and struggle with the stress, it should be taken in a certain degree. Modernity brings rapidly changing and movements in social life. Because of this reason increasing speed produce naturally ‘Stress’. Where is the matter, there is the solution. We can find our key to open the gates of stress if we find out real correspondences on our subjective and 84 Korkusuz, Ibid, p.223-224. J. L. Freedman, D. O. Sears and J. M. Carlsmith, Sosyal Psikoloji, Third Edition, Ali Dönmez (Translated by), Ankara, İmge Kitabevi, 1998, p.128-129. 86 Mehmet H. Korkusuz, Mukaddime’den Muahhire’ye: Modern Dünya’nın, Ulus-Devlet’in, Din’in ve Milliyetçiliklerin Ekonomi, Kültür ve Siyaset Atlası, Second Edition, İstanbul, Bilge Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık, 2012, p.650-651. 85 The Journal of Academic Social Science Yıl: 3, Sayı: 18, Aralık 2015, s. 124-150 147 Development of Managerial Psycho-Social Weld Pool for Balancing Political Stress objective environments. Social life and political life goes on hand by hand. Today’s societies have been affected much more by stress. Moreover the society, politicians and their team are also under pressure of stress. Effects of stress appear in social and political lives either vertical level or horizontal level. By means of many agents we are all exposure to stress such as the overload working, heavier conditions and ambiguous future. Each part of every-day life is directly bounded by stress producing components. Particularly, politically motivated stress extends in a country just like a rail way networks. In order to diminish and control people’s stress levels, politicians and their men have to learn about and balance their distress moods. Eustress (positive) and distress (negative) people can play constructive or destructive roles in communities. Personality shapes behavior. A leader’s behavior is patterned by a combination of his character, worldview and style. Personality traits are reflected in the practice of political leaders. Correct decision/judgment is considered to be outcome of complicated information processing. Many of them particularly making under stress, does not meet these criteria. We accept that ‘optimum level of stress’ may be benefit for managers and policymakers. There is link between stress perception and individual psychology. Coping with stress, learning accurate methods and improving resources are important to reach the goal in managing and decision / policy making process. Stress leads decision makers to cognitive rigidity and cause restrictions on creative problem-solving skills. Time constraints and uncertainty are major causes of stress in crisis situations. Optimal stress level is rational and acceptable. And we presented a new model in this article. Seesaw model is a good example of the dynamic stability in the politics/administrative stress. 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